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Date: November 25, 2024 Mon
Time: 8:11 pm
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Results for forensic science
11 results foundAuthor: Bhati, Avinash Title: Quantifying the Specific Deterrent Effects of DNA Databases Summary: "Forensic science has come to play an increasingly important role in aiding criminal investigations. The field has experienced numerous advances over the last two decade. This has lead courts, practitioners, prosecutors and legislators to embrace the tools it offers, in general, and DNA profiling, in particular. The National Institute of Justice consequently sought applications to study a broad array of social science research issues that these advances have raised. This report describes findings from a project aimed at quantifying the specific deterrent effects of DNA databases. Re-offending patterns of a large cohort of offenders released from Florida Department of Corrections custody between 1996 and 2004 were analyzed. During this period, several important pieces of legislation were passed in Florida requiring convicted felons — convicted of an increasing number of crime types - to submit biological samples for DNA profile extraction and storage in searchable databases. Models constructed to identify the specific deterrent effects of DNA databases distinct from their probative effects yielded mixed results. Small deterrent effects — 2 to 3 percent reductions in recidivism risk attributable to deterrence — were found for only offense categopries (robbery and burglary). Strong probative effects — 20 to 30 percent increase in recidivism risk attributable to probative effects — were uncovered for most offense categories. Methods, data, results and implications are discussed in this report." Details: Washington, DC: Justice Policy Center, The Urban Institute, 2010. 98p. Source: Internet Resource; Accessed August 13, 2010 at: http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/412058_dna_databases.pdf Year: 2010 Country: United States URL: http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/412058_dna_databases.pdf Shelf Number: 118537 Keywords: Criminal InvestigationDeterrenceDNA TypingForensic Science |
Author: Peterson, Joseph Title: The Role and Impact of Forensic Evidence in the Criminal Justice Process Summary: Over the past twenty-five years, the forensic sciences have made dramatic scientific breakthroughs (DNA typing, physical evidence databases, and new scientific instrumentation) but studies are needed to assess the contribution of such advancements on the role and impact of scientific evidence in criminal case processing. Targeted studies have evaluated the value of DNA evidence in property crime investigations, but no studies have reviewed the full array of scientific evidence present at crime scenes. In 2006, the National Institute of Justice funded this project to address the following four goals: Objective 1 — Estimate the percentage of crime scenes from which one or more types of forensic evidence is collected; Objective 2 — Describe and catalog the kinds of forensic evidence collected at crime scenes; Objective 3 — Track the use and attrition of forensic evidence in the criminal justice system from crime scenes through laboratory analysis, and then through subsequent criminal justice processes; and Objective 4 — Identify which forms of forensic evidence contribute most frequently (relative to their availability at a crime scene) to successful case outcomes. Details: Los Angeles: California State University - Los Angeles, School of Criminal Justice & Criminalistics, 2010. 151p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed September 27, 2011 at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/231977.pdf Year: 2010 Country: United States URL: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/231977.pdf Shelf Number: 122920 Keywords: Criminal EvidenceCriminal InvestigationsForensic EvidenceForensic Science |
Author: Samuels, Julie E. Title: Collecting DNA from Juveniles Summary: Collecting DNA from Juveniles examines the laws, policies, and practices related to juvenile DNA collection in the United States. States have increasingly required juveniles - mostly those adjudicated delinquent but also some arrestees - to submit DNA samples for analysis and inclusion in the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), the FBI-operated national database. The report describes the issues encountered during the implementation of these laws, including the coordination challenges between the state crime labs and juvenile justice agencies, and discusses the challenges that researchers and practitioners face in assessing the effects of juvenile DNA collection on public safety outcomes. Details: Washington, DC: Urban Institute, Justice Policy Center, 2011. 67p. Source: Final Report: Internet Resource: Accessed February 10, 2012 at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/417487-Collecting-DNA-from-Juveniles.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/417487-Collecting-DNA-from-Juveniles.pdf Shelf Number: 124073 Keywords: Crime LaboratoriesDNA TypingForensic ScienceJuveniles |
Author: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Title: Guidelines for the Forensic analysis of drugs facilitating sexual assault and other criminal acts Summary: Drug-facilitated crimes are criminal acts carried out by means of administering a substance to a person with the intention of impairing behaviour, perceptions or decision-making capacity. Drug-facilitated sexual assault occurs when a person is subjected to sexual act(s) while they are incapacitated or unconscious due to the effect(s) of ethanol, a drug and/or other intoxicating substance, and as a result unable to resist or consent to such acts. While the covert use of drugs to facilitate crimes has occurred over the centuries, it has recently been highlighted by a significant increase in reports worldwide. In response to UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) resolution 53/7 on 'International cooperation in countering the covert administration of psychoactive substances related to sexual assault and other criminal acts', UNODC organized a meeting of international subject-matter experts and developed Guidelines for the Forensic analysis of drugs facilitating sexual assault and other criminal acts. These Guidelines outline the investigative and analytical challenges related to drug-facilitated crimes and emphasize the importance of evidence collection as a basis for further investigation. They address the limitations of the analytical toxicological investigation and other issues that may impact the interpretation of results. Detailed consideration is given to all analytical aspects important in the detection and identification of substances and interpretation of results in the context of drug-facilitated sexual assault cases. The importance of collaboration of all parties involved in the investigation and the importance of collecting consistent data is also emphasized. The Guidelines aim to assist in the investigation, analytical detection and prosecution in drug-facilitated crime cases and provide guidance specifically to: i)investigators and medical professionals as to requirements for successful evidence collection including sample collection and storage; and ii) analytical toxicologists to carry out analysis of these substances and interpret results in cases of drug-facilitated crimes. Details: Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2011. 58p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed February 14, 2012 at http://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/forensic_analys_of_drugs_facilitating_sexual_assault_and_other_criminal_acts.pdf Year: 2011 Country: International URL: http://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/forensic_analys_of_drugs_facilitating_sexual_assault_and_other_criminal_acts.pdf Shelf Number: 124136 Keywords: Criminal EvidenceDrugs and CrimeForensic ScienceForensicsSexual Assault |
Author: James, Nathan Title: DNA Testing in Criminal Justice: Background, Current Law, Grants and Issues Summary: Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the fundamental building block for an individual’s entire genetic makeup. DNA is a powerful tool for law enforcement investigations because each person’s DNA is different from that of every other individual (except for identical twins). DNA can be extracted from a number of sources, such as hair, bone, teeth, saliva, and blood. As early as the 1980s, states began enacting laws that required collecting DNA samples from offenders convicted of certain sexual and other violent crimes. The samples were then analyzed and their profiles entered into state databases. Meanwhile, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory convened a working group of federal, state, and local forensic scientists to establish guidelines for the use of forensic DNA analysis in laboratories. The group proposed guidelines that are the basis of current national quality assurance standards, and it urged the creation of a national DNA database. The criminal justice community began to utilize DNA analyses more often in criminal investigations and trials, and in 1994 Congress enacted legislation to authorize the creation of a national DNA database. Federal law (42 U.S.C §14132(a)) authorizes the FBI to operate and maintain a national DNA database where DNA profiles generated from samples collected from people under applicable legal authority and samples collected at crime scenes can be compared to generate leads in criminal investigations. Statutory provisions also authorize the collection of DNA samples from federal offenders and arrestees, District of Columbia offenders, and military offenders. State laws dictate which convicted offenders, and sometimes people arrested for crimes, will have profiles entered into state DNA databases, while federal law dictates the scope of the national database. Increasing awareness of the power of DNA to solve crimes has resulted in increased demand for DNA analysis, which has resulted in a backlog of casework. Some jurisdictions have started to use their DNA databases for familial searching, which involves using offender profiles to identify relatives who might be perpetrators of crimes. In addition to solving crimes, DNA analysis can help exonerate people incarcerated for crimes they did not commit. Congress has authorized several grant programs to provide assistance to state and local governments for forensic sciences. Many of the programs focus on providing state and local governments with funding to reduce the backlog of forensic and convicted offender DNA samples waiting to be processed and entered into the national database. Since FY2006, Congress has appropriated approximately $785 million for backlog reduction and laboratory capacity enhancement programs. However, other grant programs provide funding for related purposes, such as offsetting the cost of providing post-conviction DNA testing. In the 1990s and the early part of the last decade, most of the debate in Congress focused on the scope of DNA databases, reducing the backlog of DNA casework, and providing access to postconviction DNA testing. Most of the debate about the scope of DNA databases faded away with the enactment of the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162), which expanded federal collection statutes to include anyone arrested or detained under the authority of the United States. The act also expanded the scope of the national database to include DNA profiles of individuals arrested for state crimes. However, concerns about the backlog of DNA casework and access to post-conviction testing have persisted. In addition, new issues related to the use of DNA in criminal justice have emerged, including whether (1) DNA databases should be used to conduct familial searches, (2) sexual assault evidence collection kits (i.e., “rape kits”) should be standardized, and (3) there should be national accreditation standards for forensic laboratories. Details: Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2011. 49p. Source: CRS R41800: Internet Resource: Accessed February 28, 2012 at http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41800.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41800.pdf Shelf Number: 124305 Keywords: Crime LaboratoriesDNA FingerprintingDNA Typing (U.S.)Forensic ScienceForensics |
Author: Anderson, Vincent J. Title: Decrease the Number of Contract Laboratory Cases Awaiting Data Review While Improving DNA Analysis Efficiency Summary: As of September 30, 2011, case turn-around time increased from 71 days to 108 days for delivery of the final report, due to the assigning of older cases in the backlog and a change in reporting dates. The samples per analyst per month increased 82 percent from a baseline of 15.9 to 29.0. Also, the backlog of requests for DNA analysis decreased approximately 52 percent from a baseline of 3,107 to 1,491. Although no funds from this grant were directly used to fund the validation of new analytical platforms, because of funds used from this grant for overtime to perform subcontractor reviews, LAPD personnel were able to conduct research into developing a method for spermatozoa identification and extraction using Laser Micro dissection. As of September 30, 2011, LAPD has reviewed 2,865 reports from outside vendors under the Efficiency Grant. Those reviews have led to 1,705 cases with at least one CODIS upload and 895 cases with at least one CODIS Hit Notification. Those cases were reviewed on grant-funded overtime in the amount of $238,061.64. This grant stemmed from the LAPD’s need to upload subcontractor DNA profiles into the CODIS database in a timely and efficient manner while still allowing time to develop and implement DNA analysis efficiency measures. This circumstance encouraged the LAPD to apply for the 2009 Forensic DNA Unit Efficiency Improvement grant (Efficiency Grant). Details: Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2011. 66p. Source: NCJ 236693: Internet Resource: Accessed March 10, 2012 at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/236693.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/236693.pdf Shelf Number: 124427 Keywords: Crime LaboratoriesDNA FingerprintingDNA Typing (U.S.)Forensic ScienceForensicsSexual Assault |
Author: Kerrigan, Sarah Title: Drug Toxicology for Prosecutors: Targeting Hardcore Impaired Drivers Summary: Drug impaired drivers kill and maim thousands of people each and every year in the United States. Unfortunately, prosecuting drug-impaired drivers is a daunting task. Jurors, who are very familiar with alcohol’s effects, signs and symptoms, often know little or nothing about other drugs. Tainted by crime shows like CSI: Miami, they may have unrealistic expectations about the nature and quantum of available proof. Unlike alcohol, most states do not have “per se” limits for drugged driving. To successfully explain the evidence and issues to jurors in Driving Under the Influence of Drugs (DUID) cases, prosecutors must understand the basics of drug toxicology. This publication is designed to provide prosecutors with a basic understanding of drug pharmacology and testing. The prosecution of drug impaired driving cases is more complex than alcohol-related DWI (driving while impaired) cases—both scientifically and legally. Impairment can be more difficult to discern and prove, thus making these cases more difficult to prosecute. Although alcohol is a drug, not all drugs can be considered in the same way. This means that a case involving a driver suspected of driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) may require special handling and evaluation. Good communication and effective integration of law enforcement and legal and scientific personnel are essential in these cases. Details: Alexandria, VA; American Prosecutors Research Institute, 2004. 59p. Source: Special Topics Series: Internet Resource: Accessed August 30, 2012 at http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/drug_toxicology_for_prosecutors_04.pdf Year: 2004 Country: United States URL: http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/drug_toxicology_for_prosecutors_04.pdf Shelf Number: 126173 Keywords: Crime LaboratoriesDriving Under the Influence of DrugsDrug AbuseDrug-Impaired DrivingDrugs and DrivingForensic ScienceForensics |
Author: Pacheco, Igor Title: Miami-Dade Research Study for the Reliability of the ACE-V Process: Accuracy & Precision in Latent Fingerprint Examinations Summary: This research reports on an empirical study that evaluated the reliability of the Analysis, Comparison, and Evaluation (ACE) and Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V) methodologies in latent fingerprint examinations. performance was measured in terms of accuracy and precision, and was evaluated under both unbiased and biased conditions. Accuracy exclude a latent print to a known source(s) and precision ability to reproduce and repeat the same conclusion. Reproducibility is defined as the ability of multiple participants to examine the same latent print and reach the same conclusion independently, while repeatability is defined as the ability to provide the same conclusion upon re-evaluation of the same latent print. For the purpose of this research, bias was defined as the ability of a participant to reproduce and repeat a conclusion when presented with two previous conclusions and asked to conduct a second verification. The foundation of latent fingerprint identification is that friction ridge skin is unique and persistent. Through the examination of all of the qualitative and quantitative features available in friction ridge skin, impressions can be positively identified or excluded to the individual that produced it. This study reports the results of four categorical opinions: identification, exclusion, inconclusive, and no value decisions. In addition, sufficiency determinations and comparison decisions were evaluated based on a latent Strength of Value and Difficulty of Comparison rating scale that was designed for this research. Tests were assembled using 80 latent prints with varying quantity and quality of information from ten known sources and were distributed to 109 latent print examiners across the United States. Participants had at least one year of latent print examination experience and employed the ACE methodology when comparing unknown latent prints to known sources. Responses from the participants yielded 5,963 sufficiency determinations, 4,536 ACE decisions, 532 ACE-V decisions, 1,311 repeatability decisions, 326 ACE decisions under biased conditions, and 333 repeatability decisions under biased conditions. This study took into account inconclusive responses in determining error rates and established a False Positive Rate (FPR) of 3.0% and False Negative Rate (FNR) of 7.5% for ACE examinations, as well as a FPR of 0.0% and FNR of 2.9% for ACE-V examinations. Participants were able to reproduce a correct identification 94.2% of the time and not reproduce an erroneous identification 100% of the time. Participants repeated their previous correct identifications 94.6% of the time and did not repeat their previous erroneous exclusions 93.1% of the time. Under biased conditions, participants were able to reproduce a correct identification 73.0% of the time and not reproduce an erroneous identification 96.5% of the time. Additionally, under biased conditions, participants repeated their previous correct identifications 93.2% of the time and did not repeat their previous erroneous exclusions 85.2% of the time. Details: Miami: Miami-Dade Police Department, Forensic Services Bureau, 2014. 79p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed February 9, 2015 at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/248534.pdf Year: 2014 Country: United States URL: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/248534.pdf Shelf Number: 134577 Keywords: Crime Investigations Fingerprint Analysis (U.S.) Forensic Science |
Author: Ropero-Miller, Jeri D. Title: 2009 Evaluation of Forensic DNA Unit Efficiency Improvement (EIP) Program Summary: RTI International conducted a comprehensive evaluation of five laboratories funded under the National Institute of Justice's (NIJ's) 2009 DNA Unit Efficiency Improvement Program (EIP). The evaluation team documented the implementation of each laboratorys grant activities and conducted five process and outcome evaluations to determine the impact of the EIP. Data used in the evaluation were collected through site visits, routinely scheduled meetings via the telephone and Web, performance metrics and data collection tools, and surveys of key laboratory personnel. This evaluation occurred in conjunction with the laboratories' DNA Unit EIPs for the first 28 months (October 2009 to January 2012); during this time, one laboratory completed its EIP, one laboratory implemented its EIP in April 2011, and three laboratories were still actively progressing to an EIP implementation. At the end of the project, the evaluation team documented the evaluation results based on the various stages of the laboratory EIPs; complete outcome evaluations were not possible for all laboratories. Staff identified strategies to assist other DNA laboratories in future EIPs. The five DNA EIP laboratories evaluated under this 2009 DNA Unit EIP are the Denver Police Department Crime Laboratory Bureau (DPD), Denver, CO; University of North Texas Health Science Center Department of Forensic and Investigative Genetics (UNTHSC), Ft. Worth, TX; Orange County Crime Laboratory (OCCL), Orange/Santa Clara, CA; Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation Forensic Science Services (OSBI), Edmond, OK; and Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office Crime Laboratory (PBSO), West Palm Beach, FL. Details: Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI International, 2012. 200p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed August 20, 2015 at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/248830.pdf Year: 2012 Country: United States URL: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/248830.pdf Shelf Number: 136506 Keywords: Criminal InvestigationDNA TypingForensic Science |
Author: Great Britain. Home Office Title: Forensic Science Strategy: A national approach to forensic science delivery in the criminal justice system Summary: Vision 1. Forensic science is the application of science to a criminal investigation and court proceedings. This includes crime scene investigation and the collection, identification, analysis and interpretation of potential evidence such as DNA, fingerprints, digital evidence, drug analysis and footwear marks. 2. The Government's vision for forensic science is for a clearer system of governance to ensure quality standards and proper ethical oversight, and a cost effective service that delivers to law enforcement and the criminal justice system (CJS) robust and relevant forensic evidence, and in so doing strengthens public and judicial trust in forensic science. Context 3. Crime is falling, but it is also changing. Latest figures from the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) show that there were an estimated 6.5 million crimes in the year to June 2015. This is an 8% decrease compared with last year and the lowest estimate since the CSEW began in 1981. Police Recorded Crime shows a long-term shift away from 'traditional' volume crime, such as burglary and theft from a vehicle, and an increase in offences with a digital element, such as child sexual abuse and indecent imagery offences. The shift to digital not only enables new types of crime, but also means that traditional volume crimes can be committed in ways that leave a digital as well as a physical trail. 4. Demand for digital forensics has grown in parallel with the increased use of digital devices over the past 20 years. At the same time, there has been a decline in the demand for traditional forensic science such as DNA and fingerprints. Forensic science can make a significant contribution to improving policing outcomes and efficiency, but will only be able to meet this challenge through a whole system approach, from the crime scene to the court. Landscape 5. There are currently a variety of forensic delivery models in existence ranging from forensic teams in forces, collaborative/regional structures and some operating models linked to wider partnership approaches. All models have a combination of services delivered by forces and external Forensic Service Providers (FSP). 6. In early 2016, the police service will consider options on how best to develop a digital approach which could encompass biometrics (e.g. fingerprint bureau) or broader areas of forensics, including scene of crime officers, digital forensics and other in house forensic facilities. Scoping work setting out business case options is expected to be completed in Spring 2016. A national approach to forensic science delivery, proposed and delivered by police forces, would aim to ensure greater consistency of service quality; resilient, reliable capability and with economies of scale. Details: London: Home Office, 2016. 27p. Source: Internet Resource: Cm 9217: Accessed March 16, 2016 at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/506652/54493_Cm_9217_Forensic_Science_Strategy_Accessible.pdf Year: 2016 Country: United Kingdom URL: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/506652/54493_Cm_9217_Forensic_Science_Strategy_Accessible.pdf Shelf Number: 138256 Keywords: Criminal InvestigationDNAEvidence GatheringFingerprint AnalysisForensic Science |
Author: U.S. President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology Title: Forensic Science in Criminal Courts: Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature-Comparison Methods Summary: "Forensic science" refers to the application of scientific or technical practices to the recognition, collection, analysis, and interpretation of evidence for criminal and civil law or regulatory issues. Developments over the past two decades-including wrongful convictions in which forensic science has played a role and scientific studies of forensic science methods-have called increasing attention to the question of the scientific validity and reliability of some important forms of forensic evidence and of testimony based upon them. The study that led to the report was a response to the President's question to his PCAST in 2015, as to whether there are additional steps on the scientific side, beyond those already taken by the Administration in the aftermath of a highly critical 2009 National Research Council report on the state of the forensic sciences, that could help ensure the validity of forensic evidence used in the Nation's legal system. PCAST concluded that two important gaps warranted the group's attention: (1) the need for clarity about the scientific standards for the validity and reliability of forensic methods and (2) the need to evaluate specific forensic methods to determine whether they have been scientifically established to be valid and reliable. The study aimed to help close these gaps for a number of forensic "feature-comparison", methods-specifically, methods for comparing DNA samples, bitemarks, latent fingerprints, firearm marks, footwear, and hair. In the course of its year-long study, PCAST compiled and reviewed a set of more than 2,000 papers from various sources, educated itself on factual matters relating to the interaction between science and the law, and obtained input from forensic scientists and practitioners, judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, academic researchers, criminal-justice-reform advocates, and representatives of Federal agencies. The report released today discusses the role of scientific validity within the legal system; explains the criteria by which the scientific validity of forensic methods can be judged; applies those criteria to the forensic feature-comparison methods mentioned above; and offers recommendations on Federal actions that could be taken to strengthen forensic science and promote its rigorous use in the courtroom. The recommendations-which are directed at the National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST), the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory, the Attorney General, and the judiciary-include the following: NIST should perform evaluations, on an ongoing basis, of the scientific validity of current and newly developed forensic feature-matching technologies and should issue an annual public report on the results. NIST should take a leadership role in transforming three important feature-comparison methods - DNA analysis of complex mixtures, latent-fingerprint analysis, and firearms analysis - from currently subjective methods, with their heavy reliance on human judgement, into objective methods, in which standardized, quantifiable processes require little or no judgment. OSTP should coordinate the creation of a national forensic science research and development strategy. The FBI Laboratory should undertake a vigorous research program to improve forensic science, building on its recent important work on latent-fingerprint analysis. The Attorney General should direct attorneys appearing on behalf of the Department of Justice (DOJ) to ensure expert testimony in court about forensic feature-comparison methods meets the standards of scientific validity. The Attorney General should revise and reissue for public comment the DOJ proposed "Uniform Language for Testimony and Reports" and supporting documents to bring them into alignment with standards for scientific validity. When deciding the admissibility of expert testimony, Federal judges should take into account the appropriate scientific criteria for assessing scientific validity. PCAST believes the findings and recommendations will be of use both to the judiciary and to those working to strengthen forensic science. Details: Washington, DC: The Council, 2016. 174p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed September 26, 2016 at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf Year: 2016 Country: United States URL: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf Shelf Number: 140456 Keywords: Criminal CourtCriminal EvidenceForensic EvidenceForensic ScienceForensic Science Evidence |