PAGENO="0001" THE ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT .~.......... ~.. ~ ......... ~ ......~. ~ fl... HEARINGS BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES EIGHTY-NINTH CONGRESS SECOND SESSION VOLUME II JULY 20, 21, 26, 27, 28; AUG. 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 17; AND SEPT. 19, 1966 [No. 7] Printed for the use of the Committee on Science and Astronautics 0 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE 68-2400 WASHINGTON : 196G PAGENO="0002" COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAIJTIC:5 OLIN E. TEAGUE, Texas JOSEPH E~ KARTH, Minnesota KEN HECHLER, West Virginia EMILIO Q. DADDARIO, Connecticut J. EDWARD ROUSE, Indiana JOHN W. DAVIS, Georgia WILLIAM F. RYAN, New York THOMAS N. DOWNING, Virginia JOE D. WAGGONNER, JR., Louisiana DON FUQUA, Florida CARL ALBERT, Oklahoma ROY A. TAYLOR, North Carolina GEORGE B. BROWN, Ja., California WALTER H. MOELLER, Ohio WILLIAM R. ANDERSON, Tennessee LESTER L. WOLFF, New York WESTON B. VIVIAN, Michigan GALE SCHISL1IIR, Illinois WILLIAM J. GREEN, Pennsylvania EARLE CABELL, Texas CHARLES F. D1YCANDER, Executive Director and Chief Counsel JOHN A. CARSTARPHEN, Chief Clerk and Counsel PHILIP B. YDAGER, Counnel FRANK R. HAMMILL, Jr., Counsel W. H. BOONE, Chief Technical Consultant RICHARD P. HINES, staff Consultant PETER A. GERARDI, Technical Consultant JAMES B. WILSON, Technical Consultant HAROLD A. GorVD, Technical Consultant PHILIP P. DICKINSON, Technkai Consultant JOSEPH M. Fsi~rOy, Counsel ELIZABETH S. KERNAN, Scientific Research Assistant FRANK J. GIROUX, Clerk DENIS C. QUIGLE!, P4~blicat4ons Clerk J. EDWARD ROUSH, Indiana CHARLES A. MOSHER, Ohio JOHN W. DAVIS, Georgia ALPHONZO BELL, California JOE D. WAGGONNER~ JR., Louisiana BARBER B. CONABLE, JR., New York GEORGE B. BROWN, JR., california WESTON E~ VIVIAN, Michigan GEORGE P. MILLER, California, Chairman JOSEPH W. MARTIN, JR., Massachusetts JAMES G. FULTON, Pennsylvania CHARLES £ MOSHER, Ohio RICHARD L. ROUDEBUSH, Indiana ALPIIONZO BELL, California THOMAS M. PELLY, Washington DONALD RUMSFELD, Illinois EDWARD J. GURNEY, Florida JOHN W. WYDLER, New York BARBER B CONABLE, JR., New York SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT EMILIO Q. DADDARIO,, Connecticut, Chairman II PETER A. GERARDI, Technical Consultant PAGENO="0003" * CONTENTS VOLUME II Appendix 1: Responses by witnesses to questions subsequently submitted by the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development: Responses by witnesses from the Department of Health, Education, Page and Welfare (see testimony starting on p. 31, vol. I) 606 Responses by witnesses from the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (see testimony starting on p. 133, vol. I) 725 Responses by witnesses from the Department of Defense (see testi- mony starting on p. 154, vol. I) 771 Response by Mr. Bertram C. Raynes, Rand Development Corp. (see testimony starting on p. 189, vol. I) 783 Response by Mr. David C. Knowlton, Knowlton Bros., Inc. (see testimony starting on p. 207, vol. I) 785 Response by Mr. William E. Warne, California Department of Water Resources (see testimony starting on p. 225, vol. I) 791 Response by Bureau of Mines, Department of Interior (see testi- mony starting on p. 257, vol. I) 793 Response by Mr. P. N. Gammelgard, American Petroleum Institute (see testimony starting on p. 297, vol. I) 796 Response by Dr. Arthur M. Bueche, General Electric Co. (see testimony starting on p. 325, vol. I) 800 Response by Dr. Charles A. Bishop, United States Steel Corp. (see testimony starting on p. 334, vol. I) 819 Response by Dr. Cohn M. MacLeod, Executive Office of the President (see testimony starting on p. 347, vol. I) 820 Response by Dr. John L. Buckley, Department of the Interior (see testimony starting on p. 365, vol. I) 822 Response by Mr. John 0. Logan, Manufacturing Chemist's Associa- tion (see testimony starting on p. 391, vol. I) 823 Response by witnesses from Tennessee Valley Authority (see testi- mony starting on p. 413, vol. I) 826 Appendix 2: Prepared statements: R. K. Linsley, Stanford University 830 Mill Creek Research Council, Inc 836 B. Allegaert, International Pipe & Ceramics Corp 842 R. Dubos, Rockefeller University 844 A. Radin, American Public Pow~er Association- 847 G. A. Hoffman, University of California 853 W. A. Lyon, Pennsylvania Department of Health 873 P. Sporn, American Electric Power Co., Inc 881 E. L. Wilson, Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, Inc 890 Congressman Don Edwards (California) 893 E. P. Partridge, Calgon Corp~ 897 Atomic Energy Commission 899 J. R. Garvey, Bituminous Coal Research, Inc 908 III PAGENO="0004" PAGENO="0005" APPENDIX 1 RESPONSE BY WITNESSES TO QUESTIONS SUBSEQUENTLY SUBMITTED BY THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT 605 PAGENO="0006" RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS OF THE SUBCOMMrrrEE ON SOIENCE, RESEARQH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Question 1: Please provide a listing of all contracts and grants con.- cerning research and development in the area of pollution abatement within the jurisdiction of your agency for the last several years, up to the most current date for which statistics are available. Included in such listing should be a breakout by category of contract versus grant; university, industry, in-house effort; or other; basic research, applied research, and development; and general subject of research contract or grant. Also provide estimated amounts of funds to be obligated during fiscal year 1967, by type of research and by type of pollution research area. Answer: The requested information, broken out by air pollution activities and those pertaining to solid waste pollution activities is contained in the following summary tables. Detailed listings of all in-house research projects, grants, and other activities for both areas are available in the committee files. TABLE No. 1.-Air pollution research and development by performer [In thousands of dollars] Year I State Federal and operations lo,al egencles Univer- sities Other nonprofits Profit organiza- tions Other Total Fiscal year 1964~ 5, 266 Fiscal year 1965.~. 5, 722 Fiscal year 1066.... 7, 041 Subtotal...... 18, 029 Fiscal year 19671.. Total 118 120 64 4, 154 4, 655 4, 974 679 959 1, 224 188 397 607 2 10, 407 11, 853 13, 910 302 13, 783 2, 862 1, 192 2 36, 170 17, 784 1:_il 954 I Estimate. TABLE No. 2.-Air pollution research and development by type ~f research [In thousands of dollars] Year Basic Applied Develop- ment Total Fiscal year 1964 1, 449 Fiscal year 1965 1, 517 Fiscal year 1966 1, 922 Subtotal 4, 888 Fiscal year 1967 1 Total 7, 591 8, 878 9, 987 1, 367 1, 458 2,001 10, 407 11, 853 13, 910 26, 456 4, 826 36, 170 17, 784 1 Estimate. 606 PAGENO="0007" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLtJTION ABATEMENT 607 TABLE No. 3.-Air poZlv~tion research and development by research activity [In thousands of dollars] Year A B C Total Fiscal year 1964 Fiscal year 1965 Fiscal year 1966 Subtotal Fiscal year 1967 1 Total 5,490 6,539 7, 945 3, 156 3,483 4, 137 1,761 1,831 1, 828 10, 407 11,853 13, 910 19, 974 10, 776 5, 420 36, 170 17, 784 1 Estimate. Nopz.-Subcategory A equals identification, measurement, and control of air pollution. Subcategory B equals medical and biological studies. Subcategory C equals community and other field studies. Office of Solid IlTastes applied research contracts by performer for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 (In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount University Nonprofit organizations Profitmaking organizations Total 1 3 10 271 8 2 5 300 50 300 4 381 15 650 1 Estimated. Office of Solid Wastes project contracts by performer for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 (In thousands of dollars] / Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount University Nonprofit organizations Profitmaking organizations Federal agencies Total ._._ ._ ..___ --- ....._ ..~._ ._........ .* .. ---- - ._ 1 1 86 370 2 1 1 `~ 50 25 395 2 .....__ ..____ .___ 456 ._____-_-_ -~-~ 7 - - 545 -~- 1 EstImated. PAGENO="0008" 608 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Office of Solid Wastes demo~strcttion grants by performer for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 (In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount University 3 State government agency 1 Local government agency 14 Other nonprofit organizations 1 Total 19 253 134 1, 352 250 5 4 35 2 720 440 3, 340 500 1, 989 46 5, 000 1 Estimated. Office of Solid Wastes research grants for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 (In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount Universities State government agencies Local government agencies Other nonprofit organizations Total 18 2 4 699 62 92 36 4 5 1, 450 140 17D 24 853 45 1,769 1 Estimated. Office of Solid Wastes graduate training grants to universities for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 [In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount Universities Total 4 150 8 350 4 150 8 350 1 Estimated. PAGENO="0009" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 609 OffIce of Solid Wastes State and interstate planning grants for fiscal year 1966 to fiscal year 1967 [In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year 1966 Fiscal year 1967 1 Number Amount Number Amount State Interstate Total 14 400 29 1,000 14 400 29 1, 000 `Estimated. N0TE.-In accordance with the Solid Wastes Disposal Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-272) these grants are awarded only to State and/or interstate agencies. Question 2. If all desirable research, in the view of yowr agency, were to be funded, what would be the estimated funds on an annual basis needed for what type of research and in what areas~ Answer. In his prepared statement to the subcommittee on July 21, Mr. Arthur C. Stern, Assistant Chief of the Division of Air Pollution, presented a detailed discussion of the present status of technology for the control of air pollution and needs for additional research and de- velopment in such areas as control of pollution from motor vehicles, fuel combustion, and various industrial operations. Mr. Stern also discussed needs for additional knowledge of the health hazards of air pollution. The accompanying report, entitled "Research in Air Pol- lution: Current Trends" (see p. 612) provides additional information from the Division of Air Pollution. The other reports enclosed in this section provide assessments of the current situation from the stand- point of publications which are widely circulated in science and industry. Over the past several years, Federal expenditures for research in air pollution have increased steadily. The combined annual expenditure for in-house, grant-supported, and contract-supported research has grown approximately sevenfold since 1960, from slightly more than $2 million to some $14 million. A further increase of about $4 million is contemplated in the pending appropriations request for the air pol- lution program for fiscal 1967. In addition, Senate bill 3112, passed by the Senate on July 12, 1966, would authorize additional appropria- tions for fiscal 1967. Of the proposed additional amount, about $2.1 million would be devoted to research. Thus, the total research invest- ment in fiscal 1967 may be in the area of $20 million. That a still greater investment in research will be necessary in sub- sequent years is beyond question. The enactment of the Clean Air Act (Public Law 88-206) in 1963 and major amendments (Public Law 89-272) to it in 1965 have substantially expanded the research and development responsibilities assigned to the Federal air pollution program. In addition to a broad directive for Federal research on the causes, effects, extent, prevention, and control of air pollution, the Clean Air Act, as amended, calls for special attention to the develop- ment of improved, low-cost techniques for controlling sulfur-oxide pollution arising from fuel combustion, research on the control of air PAGENO="0010" 610 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT pollution from gasoline-powered and diesel-powered motor vehicles, and the development of air quality criteria indicating the kind and degree of adverse effects on human health and welfare which may be expected from the presence in the air of specific pollutants or combina- tions of pollutants in various concentrations. To meet these responsi- bilities and to take advantage of new developments in technology, the Federal Government must clearly be prepared to increase its invest- ment in air pollution research. To provide, a basis for estimating future needs for Federal activity in the air pollution field, goals have been established in a number of important categories. With respect to research and development ef- forts, the goals that are most germane are those relating to reduction of pollution from industrial and municipal sources, reduction of motor vehicle pollution, control of sulfur-oxide pollution arising from fuel combustion, and the development of air quality criteria. For industrial and municipal sources of air pollution, the goal is a 25-percent reduction in emissions by 1975. Industrial operations, in- cluding manufacture of chemicals, cement, and pulp and paper, petroleum refining, mining, and metallurgical processes, and munici- pal activities, primarily refuse disposal, constitute major sources of air pollution in most parts of the country. Emissions from most such sources can be significantly reduced through the application of cur- rently available technical knowledge and equipment; the fact that this technical capability is not being fully utilized is mainly a reflection of the inadequacy of State and local governmental air pollution con- trol programs. Expansion of regulatory control programs is clearly the most important single step that must be taken to achieve the 1975 goal with respect to control of industrial and municipal sources of air pollution. But there can be no doubt that additional research and development will also be required; a need clearly exists for more effective and more economical control techniques. The estimated requirement for Federal spending for research in this area through fiscal year 1970 is $20 to $30 million. For motor vehicle pollution, the goal is a 25-percent reduction in emissions by 1975, a 40-percent reduction by 1985, and the development of an essentially pollution-free automotive propulsion system by 1985. The reasons why increasingly stringent control of emissions from the present-type motor vehicles will be needed in the next 20 years and why other approaches to this problem may be needed in subsequent years were presented in detail in testimony by Tinder Secretary Cohen and Mr. Stern. Through fiscal 1970. the needed Federal expenditure for research and development in this area is estimated to be $20 million. For sulfur-oxide noilution arising from combustion of fossil futels, the goal is to establish by 1970 the technical and economic feasibility of various engineering control methods and, in the meantime, seek the application of available measures, e.g., greater use of low-sulfur fuels, for preventing further worsening of this problem in urban areas where it is already very serious. This problem was discussed in some detail in the prepared statements by Under Secretary Cohen and Mr. Stern. For the period 1966-70, the needed Federal expenditure is estimated to be $25 million. PAGENO="0011" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 611 The final goal is the development by 1970 of air quality criteria for all major classes of air pollutants known to be harmful to man, ani- mals, plants, and materials. There is already a substantial body of scientific evidence relating to the adverse effects of air pollutants acting alone or in combination with one another. This evidence pro- vides ample justification for strenuous efforts to reduce air pollution in all parts of the United States. But as control efforts are expanded and as knowledge of the impact of air pollution improves, guidelines indicating the degree of control needed to protect the public health and welfare against various adverse effects of air pollution will be increasingly useful. The development of such guidelines-in the form of air quality criteria-is already in progress. The additional activity directly involved in developing criteria and in seeking needed addi- tional knowledge of the harmful effects of air pollution will require an estimated expenditure of $55 million at the Federal level during the next 4 years. Thus, in th~ four areas discussed above, the requirement for research and development efforts at the Federal level in the next 4 years is estimated at $130 million. This figure does not include expenditures for research and development concerned with other aspects of air pollution or for such activities as Federal technical and financial assistance to State and local control agencies, abatement of interstate air pollution problems, administering regulations for the control of motor vehicle pollution, and the various other responsibilities assigned to the Federal program by the Clean Air Act, as amended. The need for continuing increases in Federal budgeting for air pollution activi- ties is quite clear. Senate bill 3112, passed by the Senate on July 12, would authorize appropriations of $46 million for the current fiscal year, $70 million for fiscal 1968, and $80 million for fiscal 1969. These figures are in line with projections made by the Division of Air Pollution. But the Federal Government should not-and cannot-be expected to bear the total responsibility for dealing with the modern air pollu- tion problem. State and local governments must certainly be expand- ing their activities and increasing their budgets for air pollution control; moreover, industry is still not engaged in research and control efforts commensurate with its contribution to the air pollution prob- lem and its proper share of the responsibility for bringing the problem under control. The total expenditure needed to deal effectively with air pollution in the next few years will inevitably be several times greater than present levels of spending by government and industry. The cost of a truly effective control effort will indeed be substantial, at least in terms of the dollars that must be spent for research and control programs and for control equipment. But to the Nation as a whole, the result will clearly be a net gain, for air pollution is already costing billions of dollars in economic losses every year-far more than it will cost to achieve better control; moreover, the benefits of better control will also include an' immeasurable saving in terms of protection against the serious hazards which air pollution now poses to human life and health. PAGENO="0012" 612 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Reprinted from AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, Vol. 55, No. 7, July, 1965 Copyright by the American Public Health Association, Inc., 1790 Broadway, New York, N. Y. 10019 Air pollution has been recognized as one of our major environmental health problems, but much about it requires investigation. A review of current research trends is presented in terms of two over-all categories: medical-biological and physical-engineering. As more is learned, the nature of the problems becomes clearer, and it becomes possible to approach further investigation and control of air pollution more rationally. RESEARCH IN AIR POLLUTION: CURRENT TRENDS John H. Ludwig, Sc.D., F.A.P.H.A., and B. J. Steigerwald, Ph.D. IN 1963 there were approximately 500 I air pollution projects totalling about $20 million under investigation in the United States. This presentation includes the following: (1) a very brief discus- sion of the classification of these projects into medical-biological and engineering- physical science categories, and of the types of organizations conducting and funding this research, and (2) a dis- cussion of the more important research problems now under investigation in these two major categories. The discus- sion of the medical-biological field will be more limited than that of the engineer- ing-physical sciences. We will attempt in both areas to extend our discussion of present research into areas of future need, at least as these needs are antici- pated at the present time. Current Air Pollution Research Projects The total dollar effort in air pollution research in 1962 was divided roughly into 29 per cent for medical.biological- epidemiological studies, 31 per cent for survey and monitoring, and 40 per cent for engineering-physical sciences projects. Of the latter 40 per cent, 18 per cent: was expended in chemistry and physics, 8 per cent for meteorology, and 14 per cent for engineering studies. Roughly 37 per cent of the total re- search was conducted by universities, 31 per cent by federal agencies, 15 per cent by industry, 8 per cent by private re- search organizations, and 9 per cent by state and local governmental agencies. Sixty per cent of the support for these projects came from the federal govern- ment, 15 per cent from industry, and the remaining 25 per cent in about equal amounts from universities, state agencies, local agencies, and various private groups. As might be expected, a large share (22 per cent) of this research was con- ducted in California; 19 per cent in Ohio, most of which reflects the work of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center; 10 per cent in New York; 10 per cent in the District of Columbia, again reflecting federal efforts; 7 per cent in Michigan, and the balance in other states. The federal funding which represents, as previously indicated, 60 per cent of the total, was expended approximately as follows: 35 per cent in Public Health PAGENO="0013" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 613 Service facilities, 11 per cent in facilities of other federal agencies (Bureau of Mines, National Bureau of Standards, Weather Bureau), 18 per cent by con- tract research outside the government (universities, industries, etc.) and 36 per cent in research grants, the largest share of which went to universities. Medical-Biological Research Medical-biological research specifically related to air pollution has been carried on extensively only since the inaugura- tion of the federal air pollution program in 1955. Extensive background data, a good deal of which are directly trans- ferable to the air pollution field, are available from previous studies spe- cifically related to other areas of interest, principally industrial hygiene or occu- pational health. Current medical-bio- logical studies may be divided into two major areas: controlled biological ex- perimentation and epidemiological in- vestigations. The former is confined mainly to the laboratory and uses as experimental sub- jects for measurement of effects the gamut of biological systems ranging from microorganisms, biochemical sys- tems, such as enzymes and tissue cul- tures, to plants, animals and humans- Exposure studies also have been carried to the field to avail the researcher of actual polluted atmospheres rather than laboratory simulations. The extensive animal studies under way at several lo- cations in Los Angeles and the citrus studies at Uplands, California, are exam- ples of the latter, Epidemiological investigations may be subdivided into two major areas. The first of these comprises field investiga- tions, in which mortality, gross morbid- ity, or some indicator of health status, vegetation damage, corrosion, and the like, are measured and correlated with current air pollution levels. Since the main avenue of insult of air pollution to the human is through the respiratory system, these studies have stressed and continue to emphasize respiratory ill' nesses of many types or respiratory function testing. The second area of epi- demiology encompasses studies of mor- tality and morbidity records and their correlation with existing demographic, soclo-economic, meteorological, and air- quality information. As one might ex- pect, such statistical studies tend to provide leads for further intensive field investigations rather than definitively indicating cause-effect relationships. Today's areas of emphasis for medical effect research in air pollution are veer- ing considerably from traditional in- vestigations of the past. Because of the low-concentration, long-term nature of air pollution exposures, present investi- gations center on the evaluation of and search for functional changes in both epidemiological and laboratory studies in contrast to previous studies that used mortality, gross morbidity, gross lung damage, and the like, as indicators of biological stress. In the epidemiological field, research now encompasses the more subtle tech- nics, such as lung function testing or in- vestigation of illnesses restricted to sensi- tive portions of the population, e.g., asthmatics, or to those considered to be of less serious clinical significance, e.g., the common cold. The emphasis is on uncovering biological indicators of re- sulting chronic diseases, particularly those involving or related to the respira- tory system. Because of the low concen- trations of the exposures, laboratory studies are being extended to investiga- tions of the more subtle effects of ex- posure, such as reaction time, color per- ception, learning rates, spontaneous ac- tivity, fertility, mutations in the cells of exposed animals, and biochemical studies. T~e sçcond area of divergence of ~presi~4t~day medic~al research in air pol- lution from the traditional practices PAGENO="0014" 614 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT stems from the complex nature of the pollution insult. Air pollution involves a complex and constantly changing mix- ture of gaseous, liquid, and solid chem- ical compounds resulting in an infinite number of dosage patterns. In addition, the physical association of these mix- tures is a complex, confusing, and little understood phenomenon that is prob- ably directly related to the insult on the biological system. There is still much to be learned concerning the physical nature of pollutant mixtures to help clarify the nature of the biological ef- fect; this will be discussed in more de- tail later. Medical research cannot wait for this clarification, however, and stud- ies are under way even though the ex- posure system is not clearly defined. The best examples are studies of the syner- gistic or potentiating effects of aerosol- gas systems, which to date have in- volved mainly sulfur dioxide as the gaseous component, and the use of real- istic multicomponent exposure systems. In addition to the complexity in composition of the pollutant, other non- air pollution factors may be of major contributing importance in chronic or infectious illness stemming from pollu- tion of the air. Consequently, much em- phasis is being given to studies involv- ing pollutants plus infectious agents and the interaction of pollutants and weather factors. The effects of meteorology (bio- meteorology) and of socio-economic fac- tors further complicate the exposure pattern of pollution insults. Lastly, air pollution medical research will be hard put to keep up with the investigations of all the combinations of pollutant mixtures that may be signifi- cant in the development of chronic dis- ease. Hence, it would be of significant benefit if adequate screening technics could be developed to point the way for more extensive medical investigations. A case in point, is the present attempt to use microbiological systems (para- mecia) as indicators of the potential car- cinogenicity of fractions of organic ma- terial extracted from the suspended par- ticulate of community atmospheres. This project is of particular interest, in that the chemical nature of the fractions is for the most part unknown. Information uncovered via the biological indicator- animal experimentation route can be used to point up the need for chemical identification of the specific compounds in the fraction, tracing them back to their sources in the community for pos- sible control. Only a few per cent of the organic fraction of atmospheric pol- lution have been identified and quanti- fied, so that any leads to candidate ma- terials of suspected health significance are welcome. Air Qualify Criferia The last item we will briefly discuss under the medical-biological areas of air pollution research is the develop. ment of air quality criteria.' It is dis- cussed here principally because man is the air pollution receptor ~f primary concern. The determination of air qual- ity criteria will be greatly assisted by medical-biological investigations, both laboratory and epidemiological, directly related to man or in connection with systems that can be more or less extra- polated to man. This by no means sig- nifies that the physical sciences, engi- neering investigations, and sociological studies in air pollution are not con- cerned with air quality criteria. Rather, the situation should be viewed as an ecological system with man's health as the principal focus of attention. The ur- gent need for cleaning the air suffi- ciently, to assure only minimal effects on man's health can no longer be de- nied. This goal automatically demands a sequence of knowledge of what levels of pollutants are consonant with such minimal effects; what is the status of man's air environment; where these pol- lutants come from, and how these PAGENO="0015" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FO~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT 615 sources may be controlled or eliminated. The quality and character of the air environment, the sources of pollutants, and their control are obvious arenas for engineering and physical sciences re- search. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Space does not permit an area-by- area or project-by-project discussion of current research in the engineering and physical sciences. This discussion will be directed to the principal areas under study, focusing on those items that in our opinion are the most pressing for the immediate future. This approach will not allow the discussion to proceed in neatly tied packages representing pro- fessional disciplines, but this is the inter- disciplinary nature of research in the environmental field, and particularly in air pollution. Engineering and physical sciences research in air pollution re- quires a multiplicity of talents: organic and inorganic analytical chemists; photo- chemists, physical chemists, meteorolo- gists; physicists; sanitary, electronic, elec- trical, chemical, mechanical, and auto- motive engineers; statisticians, mathe- maticians, and data-handling specialists. Studies closely associated with these dis- ciplines require others, such as econo- mists, urban planners, sociologists, and information specialists. The field is broad, and the talents of many are needed. Vehicle Emission Research The most widely publicized area of air pollution research concerns the na- ture, effects, and control of vehicular emissions. The term "vehicle emissions" is used rather than "automobile ex- haust" because it includes all moving transportation sources-both gasoline- and diesel-fueled automobiles, trucks, and buses; and all emissions-tailpipe exhaust, crankcase ventilation, and evaporative losses. There is also some concern over pollution from aircraft. Although considerable effort has gone into this area of research over the past 10 to 15 years, the results have mainly served to improve our understand- ing of the complex physical-chemical- engineering systems involved and to delineate areas of fruitful research for the immediate future. Gone is the hope for finding "the" chemical compound in the atmosphere responsible for all effects of California-type smog, from whence we could trace the "culprit" to its source and eliminate it. In lieu of this panacea has come some understanding of the complex nature of the problem of vehicle emission pollution and asso- ciated photochemical phenomena. This understanding is vital and points the way toward eventual solution of this par- ticular problem through a series of com- plicated developments and innovations. The disconcerting aspect of what has been learned is the probability that additional significant photochemical sys- tems, involving pollutants from sources other than the automobile, may be on the horizon. The outlook for the vehicle emission pollution problem involves three phases: (1) control of vehicle emissions from the types of power plants used today. This will be an interim measure lead- ing to (2) modification of the power plant to so improve its combustion effi- ciency that it will meet presently sought goals, e.g., the state of California stand- ards: 80 per cent reduction in over-all hydrocarbon emissions and 40 per cent reduction in carbon monoxide emissions. This again will be an interim measure leading to (3) development of new-type power plants with essentially no emis- sions as we know them today. The delineation of emissions into chemical species indicates a potpourri of organics, most of which are hydrocar- bons, although this does not insure by PAGENO="0016" 616 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOI~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT any means that hydrocarbons are our major headache for all types of emis- sions. Photochemical studies indicate that various classes of compounds, e.g., olefins and certain dimethyl and tn- methyl substituted benzenes, are more reactive than other classes, and vary in reactivity within the class. Hence, there will always be a need to measure quan- titatively the various chemical species by class or individually. This now requires and will continue to call upon the adap- tation of the most sensitive advanced technics for chemical separation and identification, including sampling proce. dures that will insure determination of exhaust constituents rather than those resulting from the sampling method. As more knowledge of the presence and reactivity of specific hydrocarbons is amassed, it is reflected in consideration of improved criteria for control devices, and sets in motion a whole new chain of events involving instrumentation de- velopment, inspection requirements, and the like. The concept of controlling only portions of the exhaust from vehicles, e.g., hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, but not nitrogen oxides, poses questions as to the effects on the pollution pic- ture after such controls are implemented. The role of organics other than hydro- carbons has already been mentioned. This is precisely the problem in diesel exhaust pollution. In the diesel engine, combustion takes place in a large excess of air as compared to combustion in the spark.ignited engine, which operates at air-fuel ratios in such a way that all of the hydrocarbon cannot be completely combusted. The diesel engine is com- paratively efficient, and diesel exhaust will meet the present California stand- ards without need for control devices. However, the large excess of oxygen in diesel combustion results in the syn- thesis of oxygenated organic compounds, which are malodorous. They are very obnoxious and public complaints are numerous, even though diesel fuel usage in urban areas is small in comparison to gasoline consumption, e.g., in Los An. geles County it is only 1 to 2 per cent. In the area of engine modifications, effort at the present time relates to ef- fects of fuel composition, ignition, en- gine timing, combustion chamber de- sign, and fuel carburetion and distribu- tion. The Chrysler proposal for exhaust reduction, tested for certification by the state of California, utilizes the advan- tages of lean carburetion operation coñpled with spark retardation at low speeds (idle), which increases the com- bustion time during low-load, low-speed conditions when hydrocarbon concen- trations in the exhaust are normally high. The systems* to be used by Gen. eral Motors and Ford involve the in- jection of air into the exhaust manifold at the valve parts to combust unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the exhaust. In our own laboratories in Cincinnati we are working on the feasibility of an economical system of distributing fuel to each cylinder individually to overcome problems of unequal distribu- tion inherent in the present system. Car- buretor and manifold wetting, and un- equal air-fuel mixture delivery, due to the tortuous channels in the present car- buretor-intake manifold system, may be an important factor in emissions. It is obvious that tuning the engine to in- sure combustion in the "poorest" cylin- der of present engines results in over- rich mixtures in all others. These are only a few engine modifi- cations that should be explored. The need for such an interim program is twofold: (1) from an over-all point of view this approach is considered to be superior to the use of tailpipe devices as a method for control, in that control is built into the engine and the cost will be offset in part or in full by fuel sav- ings, and (2) such modifications can be applied to the present engine and can be improved as the demand war- PAGENO="0017" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 617 rants, pending the long lead time re- quired to develop, tool up, and produce new engine types to replace existing ve- hicle power plants. What these new en- gines will eventually be, is difficult to ascertain. Turbine and stratified-charge engines are in the testing stage; develop. ment of radically new engines, such as those incorporating fuel cells, is also under way. Afmospheric Chemhfry and Physks There is a need to adapt existing methods and instrumentation to the quantification of chemical pollutants in the atmosphere, both gaseous and par- ticulate, and to develop more specific and more sensitive technics. This need becomes greater as efforts are directed to specific effects of interest in the estab- lishment of air quality criteria. During the past eight years or so, analytical methods, in particular those developed for industrial hygiene purposes, have been applied to air pollution problems, and fortunately these have proved ade- quate for many situations. Previously we indicated that one phase of air pollution medical research -that dealing with laboratory animal studies-is going through a transition from studies of clinical effects utilizing exposures to single pollutants at high concentrations to those using multicom. ponents at concentrations more con- sonant with polluted atmospheres, so that threshold functional changes that may be precursors of chronic disease may be uncovered. These studies estab- lish the need for the development of methods for the separation and quanti- tation of the host of chemical air pollu- tants that may be of health significance in relation to chronic diseases, such as cancer and cardiorespiratory ailments. Efforts over the past ten years or so on a worldwide basis have stressed a group of hydrocarbon compounds corn- monly known as polynuclear aromatics or polycyclic hydrocarbons. Among these, benzo (a) pyrene is the best known because of the established relationship of this compound to production of skin tumors in animal experimentation. It is disconcerting to note, however, that known polycyclic hydrocarbons obtained from the organic fraction of air particu- late constitute only about 1 to 2 per cent of the total organic particulate in air. The status of other organic materials of significance in cancer research, in- cluding cocarcinogens and anticarcino- gens, is largely unexplored in the chem- istry of community atmospheres. In- formation on the role of organic com- pounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, and other minor constituents is virtually nonexistent. Recently national attention has been focused on the use of agricultural chem- icals, particularly pesticides. The im- portance of these compounds, in relation to body insult through the respiratory route, is an air pollution responsibility which must be coordinated with the work of others in this field. Pesticide exposure by any route may well pro- duce effects in individuals which are enhanced by exposure to other air poi- lutants. In other words, pesticide expo- sures may produce impaired individuals more susceptible as a result to commu- nity air pollution. Another area of need concerns the low-molecular-weight organics. These exist in the atmosphere principally as vapors in contrast to the high boiling- point compounds previously discussed, which for the most part are adsorbed on atmospheric particulate. These low-mole- cular-weight reactive hydrocarbons were mentioned previously in connection with vehicle emissions, but it is obvious that vehicles are not the only source of or- ganic vapors to the atmosphere. Still another chemistry area that merits increased effort is the develop- ment of more specific and more sensi- 68-240 0-66-Vol. 11-2 PAGENO="0018" 618 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT tive technics for quantitative analysis of inorganic air pollutants. Although chem- ical methods for nitrogen oxides and sul- fur oxides, as two examples, may sound "old hat" to many analytical chemists, there is a particular need to establish more precise laboratory and field meth- ods to distinguish nitric oxide from nitrogen dioxide at low concentrations and to understand more precisely the conversion of nitric oxide in the atmos- phere. Renewed interest in sulfur oxides in the air pollution field stems from both epidemiological and laboratory in- vestigations currently under way. One of these epidemiological studies indicates that asthmatics show increased reactions at very low levels of sulfur oxide, and another shows excellent correlation be- tween respiratory infection rates and average sulfate pollution. Laboratory studies indicate that the physiologic effects of sulfur dioxide are greatly enhanced by the simultaneous presence in the inhaled air of certain particles of size appropriate to deep penetration in the lung. This synergistic effect, it has been found, depends not only on the size of the aerosol-the ef- fect generally increasing with decreas- ing size-but on the composition of the aerosol. Our abilities to quantify sulfates by size fraction of the particulate are presently quite limited; the solution to the problem involves improved frac- tionating samplers or improved micro- technics for sulfate analysis, or both. The fact that pollutants, individually of only minor concern, react in the at- mosphere to form new obnoxious com- pounds of physiologic,' economic, and aesthetic interest, adds a new dimension to environmental health investigations. Although it was universally agreed that reactions between pollutants (such as oxidation reactions) did occur, the role of sunlight as an additional source of energy to acj~ivate complex chain re~c- tion systemi, whi~ch create new obnox~' ious end products, was a' concept that emerged from investigations of the Los Angeles smog situation. This work re- sulted in the now commonly used term "photochemical smog," and established the need for applied investigations with a tool that previously had been more or less relegated to more exotic pursuits in the physical sciences. Fifteen years of research in this area has indicated that solar irradiation in- deed plays a significant role in air pol- lution chemistry, and even though our understanding has increased many-fold, the questions still requiring answers have increased directly with our knowledge. Deficiencies in our ability to develop practicable methods for the control of the precursors to photochemical smog have further sharpened the need for in- creased understanding of the detailed mechanisms of smog formation. This is not a simple field for investigation, and it offers a challenge as great as any in the physical sciences today. Present interest in the application of analytical methods ranges from routine monitoring of community atmospheres to precise laboratory experimentation. Hence the need to adapt and package feasible micromethods into monitoring instruments, and to extend our capabili- ties for precise quantitation to labora- tory studies or to exploratory field stud- ies in order to establish pollutant levels in existing atmospheres, as they relate to the need for additional biological or physical research. The subject of aerosols or particulates has been touched on in relation to med- ical research and the development of analytical methods. The field to date has been explored only. in a gross fashion for its air pollution significance. Detailed investigations have concentrated on the general physical properties of aerosols, eg, the effects of size, shape, density, and the like, on settling rates, deposi- tion, agglomeration, optical properties, and so forth. The suspended particulate fraction for PAGENO="0019" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 619 the most part has been chemically quan- titated only in gross terms, such as total weight of particulate, weight of the ben. zene.extractable organic material, and the weight of a number of metals and anions such as sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates. This is not without reason, since the routine collection of masses of such data is not inexpensive and the work to date has utilized existing prac- tical methods for both sampling and analysis. Effects studies clearly indicate the need for aerosol studies to relate the physical and chemical properties of aerosols, as they exist in the atmosphere to biological and physical effects of atmospheric pollutants. Of immediate concern is the determination of chem- ical composition oi particulates by size fractions, principally as these relate to biological systems. Specific examples are sulfuric acid, sulfate aerosols by gross sulfate levels, and specific chemical com- pounds, lead by total weight and by spe- cific compounds, and organics by total weight and by specific compounds. Not only must sampling and analytical meth. ods be developed to enable these studies to be done at realistic atmospheric p0!- lution levels, but their application to field measurement is highly desirable. Other areas of interest involve aero- sols that are photochemically induced, e.g., typical Los Angeles haze, or those that occur naturally, and their relation- ships. Study is also needed in the broad area of gas-aerosol interactions, par. ticularly as related to biological or phys- ical effects. Not only is it important to know the chemical and physical bonds of pollutants in aerosols of various com- positions, but it is equally important to understand how pollutants are eluted from inert particulates under various environments after they have been de- posited, e.g., in the biological environ- ment of the respiratory tract, or in the physical environment of material sur- faces in relation to corrosion. Meteoroogkal Research In our discussion of atmospheric chemistry, we indicated that the activa- tion of chemical reactions by sunlight had introduced to environmental health problems the new dimension of photo- chemistry. The meteorological aspects of air pollution introduced the third space dimension to environmental problems, in that other environmental health disci- plines are generally confined to areal distribution on the surface of man's liv- ing space. Even the areal problems of the earth-atmosphere interface are much more complex for the air environment, in that topography confuses the the- oretical picture rather than dictating it in its entirety, as in stream pollution. In air pollution, we are dealing with multi- ple multicomponent pollution sources, injected into the base of a three-dimen- sional fluid. This fluid is mainly sub- ject to the influences of the general worldwide atmospheric circulation, upon which are superimposed general and lo- cal diurnal influences, general and local topography, and the social habits of man and his works. We are interested in the interaction of air pollutants and meteorological factors, not merely in the significance of meteorological processes to air pollution. Research to date has been primarily concerned with the interrelationship of meteorological parameters and measure- ments of air quality, the development of technics for forecasting stagnating air conditions conducive to the buildup of pollution (provided there are sources), and the development and field-checking of mathematical models to predict the dispersion .and transport of pollution for a variety of source configurations and atmospheric conditions. Present empha- sis is on the latter two areas. Relative to air stagnation forecasting, there is a need to sharpcn ~ur abilities to superpose local diurnal and topo- graphical effects on the general synoptic PAGENO="0020" 620 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT picture. In the development of mathe- matical models for dispersion and trans- port, there are two areas of interest: (1) intraurban models for use in con- nection with local air pollution control programs or with long-range air re- source management associated with urban planning; and (2) interurban models for the long-range transport of pollutants. The solid extensive urban complex referred to as "megalopolis" is, in terms of air pollution, a reality today o~ the northeastern seaboard. The area from the nation's capital to Boston is oriented somewhat parallel to the gen- eral circulation in the northern hemi- sphere, and the transport of pollution up the Atlantic seaboard poses a signifi- cant problem in the long-range develop- ment of this entire area. The importance of this problem should be determined before it becomes acute, and consequently the Public Health Service is tooling up for a major study on the potential for intercity transport of pollution along the northeastern megalopolis. Development of models and practical means for checking their valid- ity are under study. For the latter there is a need to produce several types of tracer materials, which must be non- toxic, chemically stable, nonexistent as pollutants in the atmosphere, and so dis- tinctive in chemical structure that they may be monitored after thousands to millions of dilutions. Fluorescent parti- cles look promising in the lower dilution range indicated, and new sensitive ana- lytical technics, such as gas chromatog- raphy with electron capture detectors, make the prognosis promising for suc- cess in the higher range. Other meteorologically oriented stud- ies of importance concern the develop- ment of ground-based methods for meas- urement of atmospheric properties in situ, e.g., determination of temperature discontinuities (inversions) or pollution discontinuities, the latter usually being associated with inversions. Improved methods for visibility determination, or instrumentation for monitoring solar energy by wave-length distribution, are also of interest. Control Methods Research Research on methods for control of air pollution has been dictated to a large extent by the status of methods and equipment available when air pollution emerged as an important community problem after World War IL Practicable methods for particulate control are avail- able to meet today's needs, albeit im- provements that will increase collection efficiency and reduce equipment and operating costs are always desirable. In the future our increasing industrial base and mounting population will require ever-increasing efficiencies of collection even to maintain the status quo, let alone reduce present levels. The prog- nosis is toward atmospheric loadings with an over-all decrease in average particle size, and with consequent in- crease in the portion penetrable into the depths of the respiratory system. It is imperative, then, that we improve our basic understanding of removal proc. esses and the engineering of these into more economical as well as more effi- cient control devices. The control of automobile exhaust has already been discussed. A great deal of effort has gone into this area and will continue because of the economic promise of return on such control de- vices and their anticipated widespread mandatory use. The control area of greatest need, af- fecting the nation as a whole, concerns sulfur oxide emissions from combustion equipment that uses fossil fuels con- taining appreciable quantities of sulfur. The association of sulfur oxides with health effects has already been discussed. The enormous quantities of fossil fuels consumed daily, and the future outlook for vast over-all increase in usage to PAGENO="0021" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 621 meet the nation's ever-mounting energy demands, further emphasizes the need to develop economically feasible methods for control. Two approaches are being pursued: (1) removal of sulfur from fuel, and (2) removal of the sulfur oxides formed during combustion from the stack effluent. Coal contains sulfur as inorganic pyrite and also as combined organic material; sulfur in oil is in the combined state. Investigations are currently under way to reduce the sulfur content of both coal and residual fuel oils; the road- blocks involve the technology of the basic processes involved as well as eco- nomics of application. Investigations of removal of sulfur oxides from stack efflu- ents are proceeding along several lines: use of packed or falling beds for sorp- tion of sulfur dioxide and sulfur tn- oxide, with recovery of the sulfur as ele- mental sulfur or sulfuric acid and re- generation of the bed material; conver- sion of the sulfur trioxide to sulfate by chemical reaction with additives, and re- moval as particulate; and conversion of the sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by catalytic conversion, and removal as sul- furic acid or as sulfates. Several of the processes are in the pilot stage of de- velopment; their ultimate acceptance will be based on their over-all economic feasibility. Here is an area where a technological breakthrough would be of major significance. Control of nitrogen oxides also is being investigated in some depth. The search for more efficient vehicle power plants or the use of tailpipe converters theoretically postulates increased fixa- tion of atmospheric nitrogen, a reaction that occurs in all types of combustion. Methods for reduction of nitrogen oxide production from all combustion proc- esses, including vehicle power plants, are under study. Three avenues are being investigated: (1) the use of catalytic converters, (2) recirculation of combus- tion products to reduce the over-all con- centration of oxygen available for com- bustion, and (3) the use of two-stage combustion to reduce the over-all tem- peratures involved, thereby inhibiting the rate of reaction for nitrogen fixation. Associated Research Needs The problems in research in the phys- ical and biological sciences have their counterpart in the social sciences. Meth- ods for assessing the economic impact of air pollution on our society need de- velopment and application. There is need for better methods of informing the pub- lic of existing and potential environ- mental health situations and, in turn, of proper interpretation of the public wishes by responsible officials. The so- cial structure of our society plays an important role in economic problems, particularly in relation to the impact of control measures needed to meet mini- mum air quality criteria. The need to incorporate air resources management into urban planning is just now being recognized as another of the many problem areas of importance in urban resource development. With our burgeon- ing population and urban development, we can no longer logically hold to the concept of growth based on chance; space no longer is available to provide the factor of safety against severe air pollution situations that we have relied upon up to the present stage in our na- tional development. Summary What, then, is the over-all status of current research in air pollution? Great strides have been made in the 15 years since World War II, which gave suffi- cient impetus to our industrial growth and urbanization so that in certain areas our air resources were overtaxed. This growth has continued, adding to the over-all problem. Assessment nation- PAGENO="0022" 622 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY, FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT wide, and research on the physical.bio. logical~engineering problems involved, have resulted in a clearer understanding of the nature and magnitude of the problem. It has made possible a more rational approach to both continued re~ search and means for bringing po~hi. tion under control. Dr. Ludwig is chief and Dr. Steigerwald is deputy chief, Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Division of Air Pollution, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. This paper was presented at the Second Conference on Air Pollution Control, Purdue University, Lafayette, md., October 21, 1963, and submitted for publica- tion at that time. PAGENO="0023" FORTUNE November 1965 A Fortune Proposition: We Can Afford Clean Air by Edmund K. Faltermayer Reprinted from the November, 1965 Issue of FORTUNE Magazine by Special Permission; © 1965 TIME INC. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATIONAND WELFARE Public Health Sonolce 623 PAGENO="0024" 624 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOF~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT A Fortune Proposition: [November 1965] We CanAfford Clean Air by Edmund E. Faltermayer Polluted air is corroding metals, menacing health, and degrading the human spirit. For around $3 billion a year, equitably shared, we can erase the outrage. An astounding 133 million tons of aerial garbage is now being dumped into the U.S. atmosphere each year. If it could be placed on a giant scale, it would outweigh the country's annual steel production. The charts on the oppo- site page, based on estimates by the U.S. Public Health Service, show which human activities are responsible for this rising torrent of contamination, and what each ac- tivity's ugly brew consists of. The charts show only the five pollutants that account for most of the over-all ton- nage; not shown are scores of other gases and stinks that defile the nation's air. These pollutants are eating away at fabrics and metals. They are defacing buildings and spoiling crops. The gov- ernment estimates the propertydamage alone at$11 billion a year, and this does not include the decline in real-estate values in neighborhoods with air that is second class or worse. Air pollution also represents a prodigious waste of potentially valuable resources: the harmful sulfur dioxide that is vented to the atmosphere each year, for example, contains about $300 million worth of sulfur at today's prices. While medical researchers have not proved that any of these pollutants is injuring large numbers of people, this junk obviously is doing our systems no good. "There is no longer any doubt," Surgeon General Luther L. Terry declared nearly three years ago, "that air pollution is a hazard to health." In agreement, the American Medical Association recently called for "maximum feasible reduc- tion of all forms of air pollution." Besides damaging health and property and wasting re- sources, air pollution dejects and degrades the human spirit in ways that a civilized society should not tolerate. The acrid smog associated with automobile exhausts, once confined to Los Angeles but now turning up elsewhere, probably does not kill people. It merely envelops them in an ugly yellow haze that blots out the view and smarts the eyes. The pride of Denver-the prospect of the Rocky Mountainsfromdowntown streets-isoften obscuredthese days by a man-made cloud of pollution. New Yorkers, plagued with 12,000 soot-spewing apartment-house incin- erators, liteyally inhale a portion of their own garbage. In St. LouisA survey showed, 39 percent of the people are dogged bj noisome odors. After poor schools and inade- quate play space, air pollution is probably the most impor- tant single factor driving the middle class to the suburbs, and a portion of the country's commuting woes must be ascribed to it. Renascent cities are trying to lure these citizens back, but they recoil from air that is dirty, malo- dorous, and menacing. The U.S. has both thetechnology and thewealth to reduce pollution drastically. Even though thousands of factories are still discharging their wastes into the public air, most of the devices for controlling emissions from industrial plants were invented years ago. "We can handle just about any pollution-control demand that is likely to be made," says John H. Schork, president of Research-Cottrell, Inc., a leading maker of pollution-abating devices. Cleaning up automobile emissions and the sulfur dioxide from electric power stations still presents engineering problems, but solutions will undoubtedly be found in the next few years. Money is not a problem, either. The nationwide applica- tion of the best techniques either already or soon to be available would cost the country far less than is generally believed. An expenditure of less than one-half of 1 percent of the gross national product-probably about $3 billion a year-would reduce air pollution by at least two-thirds. By drastically reducing that $11 billion a year of property damage, the expenditure would easily pay for itself. With the technical skills and the monetary means at hand, it is incredible that we put up with this needless out- rage. With an awakened public, there would be no need to employ susbsidies and other economic gimmicks to hasten industry's cleanup, as some experts have proposed. Cor- porations can absorb many of these expenditures anyway, and consumers would not notice them in the prices of the things they buy. Indeed, households would probably feel the costs of a national rollback of air pollution only in the prices of two items, electricity and new cars. But these two items are so universal that price increases, rather than subsidies, would be a perfectly equitable way to distribute the burden. The role of the federal government, FORTUNE believes, can largely be confined to the setting of standards, and to aiding stste and local governments in enforcement. PAGENO="0025" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 625 What's done is too little A good deal is already being done about air pollution, to be sure. Thanks to the Clean Air Act of 1963, which for the first time made matching federal grants available for state and local enforcement efforts, dozens of localities have set up control programs. While many companies have waited until local authori4 ~` forced them to clean up, some enlightened managemes `ave designed new factories more tightly controlled ~an local regulations require. Exact figures are not available, but industry is probably spending about $300 million a year on the installation and operation of special equipment, changes in materials and production processes, and on research designed to abate air pollution. Spending by government at all levels on enforce- ment and research now is running at $35 million annually, about three-fifths of it federal money. The national effort may grow larger now that Congress has passed a bill by Senator Edmund S. Muskie of Maine that, among other things, enables the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to order the nationwide installation on new cars of devices to limit the pollution from tail pipes. But all the present efforts, even combined with those under serious consideration, may not permit us to hold our own. During the next forty years the population of the country's urban areas is expected to double, and industrial output and automobile ownership in these same urban zones will grow even faster. The emissions from each fac- tory chimney, automobile tail pipe, and other sources will have to be reduced more than 50 percent on the average, just to keep the urban air from becoming any fouler than it already is. If the air is to be improved, the clampdown on emissions will obviously have to be even tighter. In the case of "stationary" sources of sir pollution like factories, incinerators, and electric power stations, the present effort is far too small to bring about any significant advances. The only pollutants of this kind that have been reduced noticeably are the nongaseous, largely nontoxic dusts and fumes that come under the general heading of "particulate matter." Chicago's "dust fall" has declined since the 1930's, and Pittsburgh and St. Louis no longer experience darkness at noon. But this improvement was helped along by the switch from coal for heating, and the switching is nearly complete. As the rainfall of dust and soot on Manhattan's East Side (eighty tons a month per square mile) testifies, particulate matter is still an abomi- nable nuisance in many areas. In fast-industrializing cities like Denver, it is on the increase. Meanwhile, emissions of the far more dangerous gaseous pollutants are rising dramatically. If recent trends con- tinue, the emission of sulfur dioxide from electric power 5~~tion~_thelargestsingle5OUrce-will increasesixfold by the year 2000. The control devices recently ~eveloped for autos, even if adopted across the nation, will b'5i~ng no last- ing rollback in carbon monoxide and hy4rocar~on emis- sions, since these gains will be more than cance1~d out by rising automobile registrations, which are doubling every twenty-five years. In the longer-range future, the increase in the airborne wastes thrown off by man's activities may require some drastic solutions. The tremendous rise in the worldwide use of fossil fuels, some authorities say, is putting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere faster than plants and the ocean can absorb it. This gas, which is the unavoidable result of all combustion, is nota "pollutant" in the ordinary sense of being harmful or annoying. But carbon dioxide produces a "greenhouse effect," and tends to block the radiation back to outer space of some of the heat energy that the earth absorbo from the sun. The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased about 8 per. cent since 1890, and may account for the slight warming up of the Northern Hemisphere since then. In a study two years ago, the Conservatioii' Foundation found this carbon dioxide buildup "not yet alarming," but said it might eventually cause the polar ice caps to melt, submerg- ing many of the world's cities. To this kind of threat, the only answer might be a large-scale switchover to nuclear power, which produces no carbon dioxide. The dump has its limits While the carbon dioxide buildup will bear close watch- ing in the years ahead, the immediate task is to cleanse the air of those 133 million tons of dirt and poison that are annually pouring into it. The atmosphere's limitations as a dumping ground for this kind of junk have already be- come obvious. There are 90 trillion to~o of air over the forty-eight contiguous states at any given time. Last year'è load of pollutants, if released in an instant and evenlydispersed, would amount to only 1.5 parts per million in the air. Since the contamination actually is spread over a year and continually falls to the ground or is washed out by rains, the average concentration in the nation's total air supply is considerably less than that. But half of this pollution is emitted from less than 1 percent of the U.S. land area, where 50 percent of the population lives. When winds are slack, this far heavier outpouring can build up to thousands of times the national average. Things can get even worse when there is also a tempera- ture inversion, in which a warm layer of air aloft acts as a lid atop the contaminants in the cooler surface air. This phenomenon was once thought to be peculiar to Los Angeles, where the lid drops to 500 feet or less 40 percent of the time. Actually, it occurs commonly throughout most of the U.S. In New York and Philadelphia, for example, low-level inversions occur 25 percent of the time, and even more `often in the fall. The only real difference is that Los Angeles' inversions tend to be lower, and are accom- panied by below-average winds. But New York throws off much more non-automotive air pollution. The air above us is not a boundless ocean. Much of the time it is a shallow, stagnant pond, and we are the fish at the bottom. In Los Angeles, compulsion brings results The most rigid emission standards in the U.S. today are applied in the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District. Faced with acute smog conditions, Los Angeles authorities have forced the installation of pollution-limit- ing devices on California automobiles. They have also forced industryto reduce its emissions by nearly 80 percent since the late 1940's; an estimated 5,000 tons of pollutants a clay from stationary sources are now being kept out of the sky. What would be the cost of a "Los Angeles treat- ment" for all manufacturing? We can get some indication by looking at a few of the major air polluters, such as steel and chemical plants and oiL rednerles. PAGENO="0026" 626 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT The orange clouds of dust--mainly iron oxide-pouring out of smokestacks carry the major pollutants that the steel industry generates. Not long ago steel companies In Chicago, with a combined ingot capacity of about 13 mil- lion tons a year, agreed to eliminate all dust by 1971 at a reported capital cost of approximately $30 million. This suggests a coot of about $2.50 per ton of capacity. Since steel companies in several other cities are pushing ahead with controls or replacing open hearths with basic oxygen furnaces-all of which have controls-it appesrs that as much as two-thirds of the country's approximately 150 million toils of steelmaking capacity may be operating with `clean stacks" by the early 1970's. Generously assum- ing that it might cost as much as $5 per ton of capacity to equip the remaining third, or about $250 million, the in- dustry would have approximately to dopble its spending on air-pollution equipment in the years ahead. The chemical industry, turning out thousands of differ- ent products, emits a bewildering variety of gases and exotic odors. Lots of chemical plants, as one industry spokesman concedes, are "quite flavorsome" to human noses, which have a remarkable sensitivity to itoisome odors. A lot of the effluent is potentially dangerous, too. The phosphate fertilizer plants in Polk and Hillsborough counties in Florida used to emit large quantities of fluorid that damaged citrus crops and caused the teeth of cattle to drop out. But in the last five years the plants have in- stalled about $22 million worth of equipment and cut emis- sinus by more than half, while increasing production 43 percent. One of them, faced with a shutdown by a court injunction, managed to reduce its daily fluoride emissions from 900 to 300 pounds in only sixty days. The members of the Manufacturing Chemists Association, which embraces most of the industry, have invested a total of $212 million in air-pollution control facilities to date, and expect to spend another $49 million in the next five years, This does not include additional operating costs or research, which together come to $26,600,000 a year. Rough estimates of what it would cost to bring all the country's chemical plants up to the level of the cleanest ones range up to $500 million just for equipment, not counting outlays al- ready planned, but half that amount might do the job. The cleanest petroleum refineries in the nation are to be found, not surprisingly, in the Los Angeles area. Stand- ard Oil of California's refinery at El Segundo, partly screened by trees, emits little besides innocuous steam to the atmosphere and cannot be smelled more than half a block away. To comply with Los Angeles' strict rules, oil- men say, would probably add between 5 and 10 percent to the cost of a new refinery. While no recent figures are avail- able, a 1961 survey showed that U.S. petroleum refineries were spending about $18 million a year on pollution- abatement equipment. But 44 percent of the money was be- ing spent on the West Coast. Bringing all U.S. refineries up to Los Angeles standards, therefore, might require the ex- penditure of an additional $10 million a year on equipment. Some of this would pay for itself by recovering valuable substances. Indeed, it has been estimated that four-fifths of the sulfur dioxide which U-S. petroleum refineries might otherwise be venting to the atmosphere is now captured as sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur. The particulars on particulate matter The troublesome pollutants from electric power stations are particulate matter, in the form of fly ash, and sulfur dioxide. The first comes almost entirely from coal-burning generating plants, and the techniques for controlling it have been around for decades. In 1962, according to the Edison Electric Institute, private power companies kept nine million tons of fly ash from entering the sky, far more than the approximately two million tons that escaped. Electrostatic precipitators in the newest plants catch 99 percent of the stuff, and a still newer unit at a mine-mouth plant going up in western Pennsylvania will be the figst in the U.S. to remove 99,5 percent. Unfortunately, new plants are still being built in some areas with mechanical collection systems that keep no more than 70 percent out of the air. To bring all the country's 130 million kilowatts of coal-burning generating capacity up to the 99.5 percent level might cost about $300 million. The cost of collecting fly ash has only a negligible effect on the price of electricity-well under 1 percent by one estimate, counting the write-off of equipment. The control of sulfur dioxide, on the other hand, could have a sizable effect on consumers' monthly bills. Electric generating stations are the country's biggest single source of this gas, and capturing it before it goes out the stack is one of the really tough problems in cleaning up the air. Most of the gas comes from the burning of coal, which contains about 2.5 percent sulfur on the average, and which is used to generate 54 percent of the nation's electricity. Oil ac- counts for a much smaller share, but heavy residual fuel oil, which generally has about the same percentage of sul- fur, is used extensively in places like New York City. Sulfur dioxide is the most worrisome of the major pollu- tants, and 23 million tons of it are currently being dis- charged into the country's air. It has been implicated in most of the famous air-pollution disasters, such as the 1948 one at Donora, Pennsylvania (twenty dead), and the 400 "excess deaths" recorded during a fifteen-day smog episode in New York City early in 1963. While not toxic to man in the concentrations ordinarily found in the atmos- phere, it can cause acute crop damage in relatively small concentrations. In industrial regions it causes nickel to corrode twenty-five times as fast as in rural air, and copper five times as fast. And under certain conditions it kills peo- ple. One of its derivatives, sulfuric acid mist, can get past the body's natural filtration system and penetrate deep into the lungs, causing severe damage. While the sulfur dioxide in New York City, which has the highest concentration, averages only 0.16 parts per million, it has flared up as high as 2.64 ppm-enough to kill some persons already suffering from respiratory ailments. Until now, no economically feasible way has been found to curb the emissions of this gas from coal- and oil-burning power stations. The only solution has been for the electric companies to build tall stacks so that the sulfur dioxide will not reach the ground until it is far away and greatly diluted. But electric-power consumption in the U.S. is dou- bling every twelve years, and the consumption of coal by utilities is expected to rise almost as rapidly in the years ahead. Some air-pollution men already question the sf5- cacy of building ever higher stacks in the nation's fast- PAGENO="0027" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 627 spreading metropolitan complexes. Nor will atomic power or natural gas-which contains very little sulfur-be of much help in the years just ahead. There appear to be only two ways out. In the case of residual fuel oil, local authorities could require power com- panies to switch to No. 2 oil, which is low in sulfur but costs 80 percent more. Or petroleum companies could take part of the sulfur out of residual oil, raising its price 20 to 30 percent. As for coal, the only answer is to trap the sulfur dioxide after the fuel is burned, and to convert it to market- able acid or elemental sulfur. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is planning to spend $7 million to build pilot models of some systems that show promise of being able to make such a conversion economically. Re- cently, officials of the Bureau of Mines estimated that any one of the three leading processes would impose an added cost, even when allowance was made for the sale of acid or sulfur, equivalent to an increase in fuel costs of 10 to 25 percent. The estimates, it should be noted, are based on the installation of these processes in a new, 800,000-kilowatt plant. The capital expense of fitting them into existing power stations, other studies show, would be much higher, perhaps doubling the augmented cost. These figures are not quite so gloomy as they look. Fuel represents only about one-seventh of the total cost of gen- erating and distributing electricity, or about 2.5 mills per kilowatt-hour. Even if the power companies were forced to burn low-sulfur fuel or were directed both to install sulfur dioxide recovery systems in new coal stations and to fit out similarly all the existing ones, the cost of the elec- tricity generated by them-about 600 billion kilowatt- hours last year-would probably not rise by more than $600 million a year. Traffic in carbon monoxide In terms of sheer tonnage, the automobile is the coun- try's No. 1 air polluter. According to Public Health Service estimates, it accounts for over four-fifths of the 85 million tons of contaminants emitted by all forms of transporta- tion, including trucks, buses, railroads, and airlines. The three dangerous and obnoxious ingredients issuing from the nation's 72 million automobile tail pipes are carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen. While it can kill a man by depriving his blood of its oxygen- carrying capabilities, carbon monoxide is generally not dangerous in open places. Nevertheless, it can reach dan- gerous concentrations in heavily traveled city intersections and expressways. Biochemist A. J. Haagen-Smit of Cali- fornia Institute of Technology says the level frequentlygets to 30 ppm. on the Los Angeles freeways-enough to de- prive the blood of 5 percent of ito oxygen capacity if inhaled for eight hours-and sometimes reaches 120 p.p.m. in traffic jams. More trouble per ton is caused by the unburned hydrocarbons, some of them highly reactive, that spew out of cars. Their partners iii crimea~e theoxides of nitrogen. All forms of combustion, particülorl3i In motor vehicles and electric power stations, give off nitric oxide. Most of this is quickly convertedI,nto nitrogen dioxide, a whiskey-brown gas that is five times as toxic; When the sun shines on. a mixture of hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide on a warm day, the result is photochemical smog. The automobile industry has opposed controls on auto- mobile exhaust emissions outside Los Angeles on the unpersuasive ground that other cities do not yet have an acute smog problem. But Washington, D.C.,where the num- ber of cars per square mile is three times as great as in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, has already had some eye- watering days. Denver figures that 40 percent of its pollu- tion comes from the automobile, and in New York City the car contributes a third. "We didn't have that haze until they built the expressways," says a Chicago air-pollution man, "but we sure have it now." Most of the radical proposals for dealing with smog, even if adopted, would barely enable cities to hold their own. Turbine-powered vehicles, now being tested by the auto manufacturers, are low in pollution ("It would make your eyes bug out, it's that low," enthuses a Chrysler man), but have not yet proved out. Diesel engines are noisier and costlier than the gasoline engine and, while they emit less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, they produce just as much oxides of nitrogen. The only solution, for the foreseeable future, is to clean up the internal-combustion engine. Since 1963 the auto- mobile companies have installed crankcase devices that vent back into the intake manifold the unburned gases that push past piston rings during combustion. But these "blow- by" devices, which actually were used on some makes years ago and then dropped, reduce only one of the car's three pollutants, hydrocarbons, and by only 30 percent. For this reason, California state authorities, who seek to roll back the pollution in Los Angeles to the 1940 level, have insisted on controlling exhaust emissions. Chrysler Corp. has a "cleaner air package," which meets California's standards, and adds $13 to $25 to the price of a new car. The device, whith sends a leaner mixture to the engine and advances the spark during deceleration for more complete burning of fuel, can be maintained for only a dollar a year more than the cost of a recommended engine tune-up, Chrysler claims. The other three auto companies have announced systems that, like Chrysler's, alter fuel-air mixture and timing. But they have added a pump that injects air into the exhaust manifold to aid the burn-up of contaminants. This system would increase the price of a new car by as much as $50. These devices are appearing for the first time on 1966-model cars sold in California. Forcing Detroit to "find something" The combination of crankcase "blow-by" device and ex- haust controls, California authorities say, will reduce car- bon monoxide emissions by 60 percent and hydrocarbons by about 70 percent. But, it will be ten years before 85 per- cent of the cars now on the road have them, and meanwhile the number of automobiles in the Los Angeles area may grow faster than smog Is reduced. For this reason the state has ordered a further 15 percent cutback by 1970. At the moment, Detroit does not know how it will comply. "We have to find something, don't ask me what," says an official at General Motors' Warren, Michigan, research center. In addition, California may shortly set limits for emissions of oxides of nitrogen. The auto industry does not yet know how to control these, either, since they present totally dif- ferent problems. But it seems safe to assume that Detroit will come up with something if it has to. Now that Senator Muskie's bill has been passed, it is PAGENO="0028" 628 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT fairly certain that the Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare will set automobile emission standards for the en- tire U.S. While reluctant to do so-even though it makes money on them-Detroit says it can install the control de- vices on all new cars beginning with 1968 models. In a nine- million car year, this would add as much as $400 million to what the public spends for automobiles. The later adoption of controls on oxides of nitrogen might conceivably double this figure, to about $800 million. Any increase in the cost of gasoline-powered cars would improve the prospects for electric cars. Yardney Electric Corp. of New York City already has a special Renault Dauphine fitted with lightweight batteries that can propel it at speeds up to fifty-five miles an hour, and up to eighty miles on a charge. The catch is that these are military-type silver-zinc batteries costing $3,000. Nevertheless, several companies, including Yardney and General Dynamics Corp., are pushing ahead in the search for batteries that would coot only a fraction of this. Electric-utility men, of course, yearn for says to put their olt-peak generating capacity to use, and become rhapsodic at he vision of millions of battery- operated cars plugged is nightly for recharging. While a battery-operated cat' suitable for long jout'neys is a long way off, a smaller version might be available in a few years. Smoldering trash fires Not counting ntanufacturing wastes. Americans ussr generate 150 million toss of trash and garbage a year. About half of that mountain of waste is burned. Bstt. the con- ditions under which much of the burning takes place can be fairly putttittve. In l)enver back-yard incinerators account fot' 25 percent of the total air polltttion. In Chicago mssny aparttttest houses still burn their garbage in heatiisg boilers, I ~ndet' these (`OttdltiOos, noisonte odors and tress of soot spill over whole neighborhoods an atfront to the nost `tIn and a tttttjot' eleatting t)t'obletfl. The best prevailittg prici ice is to coitstruet lat'ge tnstnicipal incinerstors. New' ~ot'k (`ity has tlotte this, but its io'iitet'tt- tot's ate ttot equipped with ls'eeipitatot's, atttl they dischtrge ntto the air eight l)Otttt(ls of' particulate mutt er fot' every tott of ittixed tt'tsh and gat'bage bttrned. Yet they me iottnacttlate affairs cotitpared to the city's apat'tntettt-house itscineratot's, which spesv otit tsv('nty-tx pounds per ton. "it's like per- tttitttitg outhouse,," says a los Angeles air-pollution man. But such conditiotts do ttot have to be tolerated: Ettrope's itewest tmitticipal iitcineratot's not ottly are equipped with Itrecipitatot's, but take advantage of the ftiel valste of rubbish to make steam and electricity. It would not cost catastrophic stttsss fot' American cities to abate the nuisance cattsed by the burtting of t'ubbish. New Yot'k City will shortly begin requiring double.flue incinera- tors in new apartment buildings, which will produce rela- tively little soot, Another solution svould be to outlaw the construction of aity incinerators in apartment houses, and to require modifications on the 12,000 existing ones. But since this far-from-ideal solution would cost the owders as much as $60 tnillion, it might make more sense to shut the in- cinerators down and spend about $15 million to build a city incinerator that could reduce the soot and fumes by 99 per- cetit. The city resists this idea because it figures that the added coot of hauling the refuse to an incinerator would be $19 million a year. But if it were hauled, and if precipitators were installed on all existing municipal incinerators, and if all capital equipment were written off over a ten-year period, the total additional cost of doitig the job right would work out to a piddling 25 cents a month for each of the city's eight million residents, The burning question While small on a per capita basis, such expenditures would be large enough to present real problems in many areas. Between now and 1985, the Public Health Service has esti- mated, cities and towns may have to spend $506 million ott municipal incinerators just to handle the expected in- crease in refuse collections. If the cost of building incinerators to handle a larger share of the existing load were included, that figure could easily be doubled. And this does not count the added cost of collecting and burning the stuff, which could easily total $2 billion a year. Not all of this represents the cost of abating air pollution, since ntost of these facilities may have to be built anyway to rid communities of heaps of refuse. But about a third of these operating and capital ex- penses1 or an average of about $350 million a year between now and 1985, could be somewhat arbitrarily assigned to the cost of cleaning up the city au'. In view of the enormous costs of handling refuse, more cities are exploring ways to make some economic use of it. In addition to steam generation, some cities have recently gone over to the practice, long populam' in Europe, of corn- posting refuse and selling it to farmers as a soil conditioner. Ross McKinney, director of the University of Kansas' en- vim'onmental health laboratory, has devised another system that is similar to composting except that it is anaerobic i.e., the infuse is broken down in the absence of oxygen. This not only cuts the bulk in half and produces a soil conditioner of possible value, but libem'ates a lot of methane gas, which could be used to generate power. McKinney, who frets that the U.S. is doing only about $500,000 wom'th of research a year on ways to dispose of t'ubbish, foresees trash-carm'ying pipelines in cities that will eliminate costly pickup services. Not free as air, but. in sum, cleaning up our badly soiled atmosphere is well within this country's means, To apply the best existing abatement techniques to all the plants in three main branches of manufacturing, not counting expenditures already under way, and effectively to curb fly-ash emissions throughout the countm'y's present electric generating facilities, would requim'e an expenditure on equipment of about $1 billion. This figum'e allows for the fact that it usually costs 25 to 30 percent more to install emission-curbing devices in an old plant than to design them into new ones. It should be doubled to take in all other branches of industry, and redoubled to include opem'- ating costs. Thus the cost of bringing the country's present industrial establishment up to the current level of technical knowledge in the field, if spaced over ten years, would run about $400 million a year. Meanwhile, industry could easily double what it is spendimtg to curb aim' pollution in its see' facilities-presumably whem'e ntost of its cut'rent $300 million of spending is directed. Altogethem', the application of the best existing technology to industry wottid Cost about $1 billion a year. This is a libem'al estimate. Industry in Los Angeles County, where the strictest regulations prevail, has been spending PAGENO="0029" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 629 about $2.30 a year foi each of the area's residents, which would work out to a figure of about $450 million for the nation. This probably understates things, however, as Los Angeles does not have as much heavy industry of the air- polluting type as some other areas. But despite this qualifica- tion, it is evident that U.S. industry could achieve standards of cleanliness like those of 1.os Angeles for fat' less than the $50-billion to $75-billion estimate given last year by a cot'- porate witness at a Senate hearing. To this $1 billion a year must be added the $600 million it might cost to remove sulfur dioxide from the flue gases of the utilities, the $800 million it could cost to apply all the foreseeable controls to the automobile, and the $350 million cost of ensuring soot-free rubbish disposal. These would boost the price of cleaner air to about $2.75 billion a year. Even if a few other items are tossed in -such as a ban on the use of high-sulfur fuel for home heating, programs to reduce the oxides of nitrogen emitted by electric utilities and to deodorize diesel exhausts, more research, and a fivefold step-up in state and local enforcement activities-it is diffi- cult to see how the total could greatly exceed $3 billion a year. And this estimate makes almost no allowance for off- setting savings to industry from the recovery of marketable products. Also, it assumes there will be no major cost-cutting breakthroughs in controlling sulfur dioxide or in cleaning up automobile exhaust- an assumption that could turn out to be unduly pessimistic. This program will not buy city air as pure as that which greeeted the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth Rock. But it would reduce total pollution by at least two- thirds, so that we would only occasionally be aware of it. For $1.30 a month each, we could all breathe easier. Keeping out the feds Unfortunately, American industry does not have a record it can be proud of in the abatement of pollution. Many cor- porations are reluctant to clean up voluntarily so long as their competitors in areas with weak or nonexistent air-pollution enforcehient are going scot free. And the idea of a uniform clampdown across the nation is anathema to most industrial spokesmen. Conditions vary from place to place, they argue. New York's air is high in dust and sulfur dioxide but low in automotive smog, while Los Angeles' situation was the op- posite. Therefore, they say, it is wasteful to crack down uniformly on all pollutants in all cities. In rebuttal, however, some experts point out that it made sense for Los Angeles, whichhad lower sulfur dioxide readings than most cities, to curb emissions of this damaging gas as well. Impatient with industry's progress, some economists have been exploring ways to speed it up. A special committee under Gardner Ackley, chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, has been considering the feasibility of imposing a scale of charges on companies that pollute the air. Tax con- cessions in the form of faster write-offs, and a doubling of investment credits when equipment for controlling pollution is installed, have also been suggested. But a system of charges would be incredibly complicated to administer because of the difficulty of identifying and metering aerial contamination. Tax concessions, which in effect are subsidies, are objection- able because they amount to bribing companies to be good citizens; the federal government might as well arrange a pay- ment to every child who refrains from dropping candy wrap- pers in the street. The experience of Los Angeles, where no economic gimmicks were employed, shows what can be ac- complished by local enforcement. Washington's role, in fact, can be a limited one. It seems clear, from industry's dismal record, that national standards for emission are needed for every industrial process. The federal government is best equipped to carry on the research needed to establish these standards. Their actual enfoice- ment, however, can best be done by state and local govern- ments. The federal government has limited policing powers under the 1963 law, and can intervene in interstate air- pollution siLuations if localities move too slowly (about 40 million people live in urban zones that straddle state lines), or in an intrastate situation if the governor requests It. But the main federal contribution to enforcement should be money. In the past year, when matching grants from Wash- ington have become available for the first time, they have brought a 47 percent increase in the budgets of state and local air-pollution control agencies. Federal money spent in this way is far more potent than direct subsidies-would be, and much less of it will be needed. PAGENO="0030" AIR POLLUTION by Seymour Tilson REPRINTED FROM SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A CONOVER-MASTPUBLICATION 205 EAST 42 ST. NEW YORK 17~ N.Y. June 1965 630 PAGENO="0031" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 631 [iNÔUR 0PINI9Nj The smoke is beginning to clear: Our capacity to lick air pollution makes for optimism about our social tools It's another hazy day in New York as I write this; smoke is drifting out of the four smokestacks I can see from my window. It would be easy to be depressed about this fur- ther evidence of the unpleasant side of urban living. Yet I'm filled with optimism about our ability to solve this problem-to clean the air in our cities and around our factories. And from that optimism springs a conviction that the technical and social approaches we're de- veloping to solve this problem can, in other forms, solve other problems of a complex, ur- banized society. My bright view on a hazy day comes from reading Seymour Tilson's piece about air pol- lution, which starts on the next page, and from surveying some of the legislative activ- ity in this field, particularly the Clean Air Act of 1963. Tilson's article demonstrates that the technical problems, while complex, are en- tirely soluble. Sure, there is much we don't understand about the photochemistry of smog formation or about the weather patterns that cause New Yorkers to inhale some of Phila- delphia's exhale. But technology already exists to stop most pollution at the source, and the remaining more refractory sources-automo- bile exhausts are one-should yield to the re- search and development efforts that are being mounted in response to the new concern about the quality of our urban air. So we possess the technical instrumentali- ties for cleaning our air; do we have the social instrumentalities for ensuring that we will employ them? Certainly it takes more than self-interest. Air-cleaning equipment is usually just an added cost and can return its invest- ment only in those rare cases where the re- claimed material has value in the marketplace. One needs then new ways to encourage the installation of air-cleaning equipment and to penalize those who pollute the air. Here again I'm optimistic, for we seem to be finding and refining such mechanisms. For example, the Clean Air Act provides for fed- eral grants to match local expenditures for controlling air pollution. This seems an excel- lent way to strengthen local efforts without involving the federal government unduly. However, because pollution is a regional con- cern, the federal contribution is scaled up when two or more municipalities or states join in a regional pollution-abatement campaign- a nice bit of social innovation. Also in the wind is a mechanism to encour- age private efforts at air cleaning by provid- ing faster write-off for capital investment in air-cleaning equipment. That sort of tax relief is a proven mechanism for encouraging so- cially useful investment; it's worked for capi- tal investment generally and it will, I'm sore, go a long way to make companies invest in air cleaning. Of course, the companies are not completely unwilling, and that is another, more subtle social mechanism. In the last few decades there has been a growing appreciation, par- ticülarly on the part of larger companies, of corporate social responsibilities. If for no other reason than to avoid public pressure and governmental interference, company after company has done on its own what the public would have them do. Finally there is research and development as a social mechanism. Yes, a social mecha- nism, for that is what it is First of all, by accelerating the rate of in- novation, we in the technical community speed the rate at which new plant is built, the rate at which smokeless nuclear power plants sup- plant the fossil-fueled sort, for example. In- directly, research means a wealthier society, a society that can more readily afford the luxury of not treating the air as a sewer. Secondly, the engineer's approach to prob- lems like air pollution causes at least some of the issues to be reduced to quantitative terms. We can be rational about the relative contribu- tions of auto exhausts and factory smoke stacks to the pollution in any area when we can put numbers on those contributions. This rationality has the effect of potting a vector on all the other social mechanisms I discussed; it becomes possible to describe the problem in terms of the sources of pollution, the limits to atmospheric dilution, the limitations in measurement, etc. In place of an emotional in- veighing against all but the purest air, one has a basis for putting private and public con- cerns onto a scale. A rough scale. f or there is still much we don't understand about pollution, but a scale nonetheless. You have to be a natural-born optimist to believe that these new and sometimes fragile mechanisms will alter the self-interested pat- terns that have built up across the centuries. But I am an optimist, and, . . . look, the sun's shining 1-Dan Cooper PAGENO="0032" 632 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT AIR POLLUTION by Seymour Tilson associate editor IN BRIEF: The idea that polluted urban air is dangerous, widespread, costly, unpleas- ant, and perhaps unnecessary in societies affluent enough to pollute it so extensively has gained wide currency in recent years. The U. S. Clean Air Act of 1963 is the most far-reaching embodiment of this attitude; it authorized the Department of Health, Education and Welfare to spend $95 mil- lion through 1967 for a wide variety of re- search and control measures. This begin- ning promises to stimulate badly needed developments in many areas of meteorology, atmospheric chemistry and photochemistry, fuel chemistry, sensing and monitoring de- vices, and control devices for automobilrs and industrial pollution sources. A pivotal need for a more systems oriented approach to air-pollution control is the definitive set of air-quality criteria which the Act charged HEW with developing. Innumer- able technical and social difficulties stand in the way of establishing these, and of translating them into effective community control measures, It seems clear that a much larger commitment to safe, clean air will be needed to really do the job-S. T. * Researchers at General Motors are stsdy- ing smog. They produce it artificially, in a chamber, by diluting automobile exhausts with air and irradiating the mixture with simulated solar ultraviolet. And they use a 5-stage filter- ing system to purify outside air to the levels required by their experiments. Nobody ap- preciates the irony of this more than those who are professionally concerned with the larger problems posed by polluted air. Polluted air-to which auto exhausts are one contributor-is bad, they say. It's bad for people, plants, and materials. It's bad for aesthetic reasons and economic ones. It con- sumes ingenuity in sophisticated activities such as smog-chamber experiments, clean- room technology, and corrosion control. It poses unsolved risks whenever your plane is delayed or makes a blind landing made neces- sary by fog, which is up to twice as prevalent in polluted urban atmospheres as it is in clean air. Pollutants have changed the weather over urban areas in other ways also, mostly un- pleasant and perhaps unhealthy. And some say the accumulation in the atmosphere of even such a non-pollutant as ordinary carbon di- oxide, contributed by man's burning of fossil fuels, may turn out to have unwelcome effects on the climate, geology, and ecologic balance of the entire planet before the century ends, Most immediate concern centers however on the health hazards of polluted air, and here the statistical and epidemiological portents are suitably harrowing. Over the long run, breathing polluted air may make us more sus- ceptible to lung cancer, gmphysema, bron- chitis, and asthma-not to mention acute non- specific upper respiratory diseases as well as good old-fashioned pneumonia. Over the short run, when pollutant concentrations become high enough those with cardio-respiratory in- sufficiency Who also happen to be very old, or even very young, are likely to stop breathing. The list of horrors could be extended in rather more exotic directions, if men were mice and responded to certain pollutants in the way that laboratory creatures do. Documenting these health hazards-espe- cially the ones which result from chronic long- term exposure to the characteristically exceed- ingly minute concentrations of pollutants-is a complex, tedious task. It's the subject of most current research in the air-pollution field. In spite of difficulties documentation is growing rapidly, but not as rapidly as the growth of pollution itself. This imbalance promises to be redressed, however, as rising public concern makes itself felt in many ui- banized parts of the world. This concern crys- tallized iii the U.S. two years ago when Con- gress passed a far-reaching Clean Air Act which authorized the Department of Health. Education, and Welfare to spend $95 million over the next few years on a broad spectrum of training, R&D, and control activities, The Act specifically focused technical attention on three major interrelated problems-motor vehicle exhausts, sulfur-containing fuels, and the development of air quality criteria. Pollut Ion sources and the research door Motor vehicle exhausts are the chief con- tributor to the air pollution syndrome that once used to be known to the rest of the world, mostly through comedians' jokes, as Los Angeles smog. It involves a variety of unpleas- ant pollution effects which center around the photochernistry of dilute mixtures of hydro- The problem and approaches to solving it have come a long way since smoke chasing days. Recent infusions of public concern and federal money may make it a systems problem more challenging than reaching for the moon PAGENO="0033" ADEQTJACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLTJTION ABATEMENT 633 carbons and oxides of nitrogen in the air. Automobile exhausts are a prime contributor of both of these raw materials, but large power plants add a fair share of nitric oxide, and open burning of wastes as well as im- perfectly designed or operated incinerators add other organic materials to the picture. The problems caused by sulfurous fuels were formerly known as London smog, but they too are more widespread than the name suggests. This is an ash-soot-sulfur dioxide-sulfate com- plex to which industrial, electric-power gen- erating, and domestic heating exhaust streams are the chief contributors. Hydrocarbon compounds that may number into the thousands and that include carcino- genic polycyclic members of the family-such as 3-4 benz~pyrene~nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, sulfates, soot (mostly carbon), and fly ash are not the only things present in re- Fig. 1. Eurspean moth species named Biston bet- ularia adopted ts pollution, in the Birmingham in- dustrial district of England, by changing frssn doaninantly light colored ts dominantly dark in less than JOO years. Dark fsrm, knowa appropriately as carbonaria, is safer from preying birds when it rests on soot-blackened trees; thus the gene far dark col- oring has became more abundant in the population. Man's problems with pslluted ai~ are not so simple, nor so easily solved. Pig'. 2. Limestone outside facing of the National Gallery in London (below) shows typical results of accelerated weathering caused by high concen- tration of SO2 in urban air. SO, is oxidized ond hydrated to sulfuric acid_H ,SO -which attacks listoestonc (CaCO,) and converts it into the hy- elrons mineral gypsum (CsSO12H2O). This re- oction helps break up original surface and gypsum's greater solubility in rain water finishes the destructive job. The same difficulties, except for the last one, are encountered indoors, os in the Areoa Chapel in Podus, Italy, where "Mission of Gabriel" fresco by Giotto ahosos tan powdery effloreocenee of gypsum crystals formed by H,SO, attack on lime in the nndeelyi,~g plaster. 68-240 0-66-VoL 11-3 PAGENO="0034" 634 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT markable tonnages in the air over cities large and small. Add to these, uncomfortably high amounts of carbon monoxide from auto ex- hausts, and chlorides, fluorides, and ammonia from diverse sources and you begin to get the picture. Finally toss into the pot formalde- hyde and other aldehydes, acrolein, and an array of intensely oxidizing substances includ- ing deadly ozone-which are just a few of the possible products of photochemical and other reactions among various of the contaminants and the ordinary components of air-and it becomes evident that the tWo problem areas that I described briefly abosre do only limited justice to the magnitude of the problems pre- sented by polluted urban air. But it is the third specific dictum of the Clean Air Act-which directs the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, through the Public Health Service, to set up nation- wide air quality criteria-that may really open the door to research opportunity. More to quality control than meets the eye At first glance the problem of setting such concentration criteria for various contami- nants in air seems simple. And so does using them for control purposes. Once the limit- stated as a concentration that ought not to be exceeded when either averaged or integrated over a certain length of time-is set, a series of control steps seem to follow logically. First, inventory the volume of air avail- able-again either averaged or integrated over a meaningful time interval-for diluting pol- lutants over an urban region or throughout a regional airshed. Then inventory the sources of pollutants In the region, as well as the sources of ~liose pollutants coming from up- wind regions in the airshed, in terms of kind and amount. At this stage don't overlook the possibility-a likely one-that photochemical and ordinary reactions in both local and trans- ported pollution clouds may make more harm- ful products of initially innocuous substances, and vice versa. Next determine limits for the emission of each pollutant from each source, under the worst possible dispersal conditions, so that the tithe-averaged or integrated total of their individual contributions to the am- bient air remains below allowable limits. And of course develop and enforce the use of what- ever changes in processes or equipment may be necessary to keep emissions from each source within indicated limits. Finally work out tech- niques for monitoring air in the region for conformance to the ambient air standards- and maybe even also techniques for spotting sources of trouble when monitoring shows that ambient standards are being violated. Getting to the moon may be easier. Little more than a moment's reflection is required to appreciate some of the difficulties that de- velop at each stage of this more or less "ideal" solution to modern regional air pollution prob- lems. Po'itical and economic factors are not the least of them, Each step also presents major problems of meteorological understanding. Not so much on a scale as smell as what happens to the pollution plume from a single exhaust stack, where much is known~ bUt on a scale that per- mits fuller evaluation and prediction of the wind-stagnation and thermal-inversion condi- tions that can inhibit the ventilation of any region. Each step in control also poses largely unsolved problems and unprobed opportunities in chemical and meteorological sensing and monitoring, in atmospheric chemistry, in telemetry, and in data handling, Controlling air quality is, in short, a sys- tems problem of çh~llenging magnitude in which social, political, eConomic, and technical factors mingle inextricably. Controls need not-should not-walt In many ways the situation with regard to engineering of devices and hardware, and to improving process variables, is in or can easily be put in much the best shape. While there's always room for technical improvements and lowered costs, the*-e has long existed a for- midable arsenal of scrubbers, filters, electro- static precipitators, centrifuges, and more re- cently sonic agglomerators that can take most particulate matter out of industrial exhaust- gas streams. And burning waste dumps and faulty incinerators are largely political prob- lems, not technical ones, Even the more re- calcitrant problems of gaseous pollutants like SO2, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons promise to yield to research efforts that are now being prodded into higher gear. If these efforts fail to produce results, there are always alternatives available-such as PAGENO="0035" ADEQuACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLTJTION ABATEMENT 635 WHAT'S IT LIKE IN THE CITY? (Relative to rural = tin each case) City Atmospheric element Dust particles Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide 0.8 Total sunshine 0.7 Ultraviolet (winter) 0.95 Ultraviolet (summer) Ps ummer Fig. 4. The few snbotanceo shown in this table as being overly abundant io city air do not nearly exhanot the list. Absent are hydrocarbons by the huadreclo-osooe of them potent carcinogens in laboratory aei,oslo-aod the highly toxic gas nitrogen dioxide. Since these two react with each other nader the atimslss of oolar ultraviolet ra- diatios-to prodscc photoehemiral smog with its characteriotic haze, eye irritation, and damage to sensitive plants-it is perhopo fortunate that pollutants help cut down on oolar ultraviolet reaching street levels in the city. Of couroe some air bacteria that might be killed by ouch uv are not, but one must be grateful for small favors when living in the urbo. atomic powered instead of fossil-fuel-powered generating stations, or, farther in the future perhaps, cars operated by batteries or fuel- cells instead of internal combustion engines, or electrified mass transportation. The art of pol- lution-control is not so much primitive in technical means as deficient in social ones. Whether anybody has to do anything about the pollutants that their products or processes emit-and how well they must do it-depends in part on progress made farther back along the "ideal" pollution control chain. Here the first step-setting air-quality criteria-is the most crucial. It is also the moot complex. Though all the needed data are not in, most people would agree, I think, with Vernon MacKenzie, head of PHS' Division of Air Pol- lution, when he says that "we must. .. get on with the job of developing air-quality criteria and standards against a background of techni- cal and scientific knowledge which is not now and probably never will be perfect." Engineers can recognize the validity of this approach; as professionals they live with it. There's a worm or two in the apple Nevertheless, in view of large gaps in exist- ing knowledge about the chemistry of normal and polluted atmospheres, there are under- standable differences in outlook between indus- trial and public health people over which sub- stances-and which industrys'-emissions should be controlled. Many industrial people, including the most enlightened ones, remain somewhat loathe to pursue very much control- orientated research in the absence of defini- tive legal standards based on equally definitive criteria. Indeed, the automobile industry claims it wants such criteria precisely so it will know where it stands over the longer haul. It points to its experiences of recent years in California, the State that has led the country-perhaps the world as well-in pollu- tion-control activities. California has more cars and a more poorly ventilated climate, in the Los Angeles area anyway, than any State in the Union. It also is richly endowed with sunshine. So it's not surprising that it leads the country in its concern about the auto component of its air pollution problem. Auto exhausts emit two main contaminants: hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The hydro- carbons oome mostly from fuel that is not completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water during engine operating cycles. The hydrocarbons are diverse in kind-com- pounds originally in the fuel as well as new compounds that are formed during the high- temperature combustion process. Nobody has identified all of the compounds, but there were about 200 of them at last count. Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitric oxide (NO) with lesser amounts of NO2, result from the high- temperature dissociation of molecular nitro- gen and oxygen from the intake air used to burn the fuel. The liberated atomic nitrogen and oxygen then combine to yield the oxides. These reactions are reversible at high tem- peratures, but they are prevented from re- versing-the two oxides are literally "frozen in"-as combustion temperatures drop rapidly from peak values during expansion of the gases in both auto engine cylinders and power- station exhaust stacks. Of these two groups of contaminants Cali- fornia has so far established emission stand- ards only for the hydrocarbons, chiefly be- cause it was originally thought that the ni- trogen oxides in auto (and other) exhausts would be far more difficult, and maybe unwise to eliminate. It was also felt originally that reducing the concentration of either one of the starting reactants would help reduce the build- up of troublesome final photochemical reaction products in the air. Over the years, as California re-inventoried the dimensions of its pollution problems in finer detail, changes were made in automobile and other emission limits. The average uncon- trolled automobile exhaust emits about 700 ppm hydrocarbons. Current California stand- ards, set by the State Department of Health and approved by the legislature, limit this to 275 ppm and include an additional restriction PAGENO="0036" 636 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT on carbon monoxide of 1.5% (the average ex- haust emits perhaps 3%), for reason of its own toxicity and its rising concentration in Los Angeles air, not because it contributes to photochemical smog. By 1970 the state will re- duce these limits still further, to 180 ppm and 1% respectively. But even now, for reasons that we will discuss shortly, the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District-the trail-blazing agency in photochemical pollu- tion control-would like to see the hydrocar- bon limit reduced to below 100 ppm. Such differences in opinion on the part of different control agencies is of course not friv- olous in intent. It reflects uncertainty about precisely what should be controlled, and by how much. But at each such turn in the road to inevitable controls, a good deal of prior re- search on control techniques gets bypassed, And at the spectre of a patchwork of differing, locally determined control limits a national in- dustry, like the auto industry in particular, gets understandably upset. To more clearly un- derstand the basis for some of these difficulties we need a closer look at the nature of the smog which now afflicts all urban regions that are highly populated with automobile traffic. Sun-stewed auto exhaust-0smog Photochemical smog's chief immediate and obvious symptoms are eye irritation, damage to sensitive plants (as far as 100 miles from urban centers), accelerated cracking of rub- ber, and decreased visibility due to the forma- tion of a haze of solid and liquid particles which are collectively described as aerosols, The first three symptoms are caused by the products of a complex of reactions that start, as we said, with hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. In the course of the reactions some highly reactive intermediates and ozone are formed. These help polymerize the organic compounds in the mixture, according to Prof. A. J. Haagen-Smit of CalTech who pioneered work in this field, and lead to the formation of additional, non-volatile, oxidation and poly- merization products which add to haze and eye irritants from other sources of pollution. This kind of pollution is characterized by the same extreme dilution of reactive con- stituents and intermediate and final reaction products that characterize all air pollution. An ozone concentration of 0.3 ppm for in- stance is 10 times its normal background con- centrations at ground levels. Haagen-Smit points out that this extreme dilution is one reason why it takes many years to unravel even relatively simple atmospheric reactions such as the photodecomposition of acetone. In ordinary laboratory work, "slow" and "fast" reactions are characterized against a backdrop of reactant concentrations that average about 10%, But in atmospheric reactions concentra- tions are only on the order of one-millionth as much, Under these conditions reactions which would proceed in thousandths of a second at ordinary laboratory concentrations take an hour in the atmosphere, This is important: It is essentially what permits the highly potent ozone to survive at- tack by reducing agents such as SO~ in the atmospheric mixture. Ozone thus can go on to participate in reactions at several stages in the photochemical chain, The immense slow- down in reaction rates also gives ozone and various, highly reactive, free radicals that are formed a far better chance to survive long enough to play significant roles, not only in the over-all reactions but in some of the ob- served symptoms as well, The still far from completely elucidated chain of daily reactions leading to smog is set in motion by the photochemical disso- ciation of nitrogen dioxide. It is a yellow- brown gas that most effectively absorbs pho- 5. High wintertime concentrations of SO2 in air over (British) cities and surrounding re- gions come from burning of sulfur-bearing coals and add to ordinary cardis-respiratory hazards of winter weather, especially far the elderly. The map makes clear that pollution is not just a downtown problem; nor is the SO~ problem ex- clusively a British one. Abatement efforts center on switching to low-sulfur fuels and eliminating SO~ from flue gases. PAGENO="0037" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 637 330 ~320 310- io'~ ~300- 5~ ~290- o - ~`280 0 0 o~ , "V~-e'' 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 Year Fig. 6. Accelerating nse of fossil fuels may re- salt in 50'/, rise is amount of CO4 in the air by year 2000. If not absorbed by ses and plants thio n-sold raise temperotnres several degrees by en- hanced `greenhouse" effect, enough perhaps to null glaciers and flood coastal cilu's. tons in the blue and near ultraviolet. Thia dis- sociation produces nitric oxide and atomic oxygen NO2 + isv - NO + 0. The atomic oxygen thus formed combines with atmos- pheric oxygen molecules to form ozone (Os). Other photochemical reactions that con- tribute to the stew form excited oxygen mole- cules. These and ozone, perhaps aided by atomic 0 present in some dynamic equilibrium concentration, attack organic materials, prob- ably by removing hydrogen atoms from the hydrocarbons. This oxidizing assault forms reactive intermediate substances such as alkyl and acyl radicals. These radicals can unite with oxygen to form still more reactive peroxyl radicals. And these, in turn, can react with oxygen to form more ozone, with NO to form larger quantities of chain-initiating NO2, and with NO2 to produce short-lived but plant damaging peracylnitrates (uoually abbrevi- ated to PAN) and an abundance of more stable oxidation products such as eye-irritating for- maldehyde. Bewildered? Let's go over it again with reference to Fig. 8. The pivotal group of oxi- dizing substances consists of atomic oxygen (from dissociation of NO2), excited molecular oxygen (from solar irradiation of the atmos- phere's abundant molecular oxygen), peroxyl radicals (from the action of other oxidants on hydrocarbons), and ozone (formed as a by- product in several of the photochemical reac- tions). During the daylight hours all of the oxidants contrive to react with the original starting materials_hydrocarbons (particu- larly unsaturated, oleflsic ones and some aromatics) and nitrogen oxides-as well as with their reaction products. Thus at any par- ticular time, the air is filled (relatively speak- ing-remember the troublesome concentra- tions are down at or be/oat~ the part per mil- lion level) with a very complex mixture of in- termediate oxidation and reaction products. Unquiet controversy In California A vast amount of experimental and theoret- ical photochemistry remains to be done at the low concentrations and low temperatures which characterize polluted atmospheres be- fore we completely understand these proc- esseo. In the laboratory (Fig. 9, 10) symptoms of photochemical smog can be produced by is'- radiating with mock sunlight suitably low concentrations of hydrocarbons in the pres- ence of oxides of nitrogen. But considerable controversy exiots among both atmospheric chemists and simulators of smog about the precise course and time constants of each of the innumerable reactions occurring in pol- luted atmospheres. Not all ouch disputes are academic; indeed one such controversy is par- ticularly instructive. It illustrates in a simple way the difficulty of understanding what our pollution problems really are and casts a long shadow over approaches to controlling photo- chemical pollution. Although nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are the essential starting ingredients, only hy- drocarbons are now being controlled in Cali- fornia, as was mentioned. This also is the con- trol approach called for in a recent bill pro- posed to Congress and aimed specifically at the motor vehicle pollution problem. It should work; according to the tenets of the familiar chemical law of mass action this should in- hibit formation of even the minute concen- trations of final photochemical reaction prod- ucts. Indeed, the consensus among pollution ex- perts in Washington, Detroit and Californils is that by reducing hydrocarbons enough now, THE SUDDEN PEAKING OF POLLUTANTS Concentration (ppm) Fig. 7. Importance of continuous monitorong of pollutants-new being done by the Public Health Service's automated equipment in only nine cities -is emphasized by frequently observed higher short-time peaks such coo these, which reveal in- adequacy of using lower long-period averages in many medical studies. PAGENO="0038" 638 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT most of the ill effects associated with high oxidant levels that characterize photochemical smog can be eliminated, without any need for controls on nitrogen oxides for the time being. Others, Haagen-Smit among them, want both ingredients controlled. Still others feel most uneasy about nitrogen oxides. They feel the consensus on the hydrocarbon control approach may be too naive, in that it equates the eye irritation symptoms exclusively with the end products of irradiation. These prod- ucts reach peak concentrations in experi- mental chambers after some 41/2 hours of ii'- radiation. But Walter Hamming and colleagues of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Con- trol District have shown that there is an earlier peak of eye irritation observed in many irradiation chamber studies. It is equal in severity to the later one but it occurs only about 1l~ hours after irradiation han begun, and not only in simulation studies but in downtown Los Angeles after sunrise as well. This is long before oxidants such as ozone or PAN have reached any appreciable concentra- tion. Indeed, this early irritation peak seems to coincide most closely with maximum NO2. Thus, Hamming and his coworkers feel that controlling nitrogen oxide emissions equals or exceeds hydrocarbon control in importance in alleviating Los Angeles' most obvious problem. There's another interesting angle to all this. Hamming points out that the severity of eye irritation produced seems to relate to the intensity of sunlight involved. It turns out that for conditions in Los Angeles region partial control of hydrocarbons alone could possibly lead to more severe and extended pe- riods of eye irritation. Since the early peak- ing NO2 wouldn't have enough hydrocarbons available to be used up in zipping on down the photochemical reaction pike it might hang around longer and reach higher daily aver- ages. In any case, Hamming feels that reduc- ing nitric oxide emissions in any degree can only reduce the severity of eye irritations whereas hydrocarbons would have to be lim- ited much more drastically than is currently envisioned to achieve equally effective relief. This tempest over tearing eyes in Los An- geles may have deadlier ramifications. The need for controlling NO and NO2 Obviously, differences in opinion over needed control measures depend on the symp- toms that concern one. The control waters have all too often been muddied by imprecise definitions here. Precise definitions are needed, and soon, before going too far with control attempts limited to single, more easily coxtc trolled components of complex reaction mix- tures. NO2 itself for instance is acutely toxic at about 100 ppm. The limiting concentration that industrial hygienists allow for it and other oxides of nitrogen in workroom air is 5 PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG MADE SIMPLE Fuel Combustioa at High Temperstuies NO + NO2 [2NO+O2l-n- 2NO2 Evaporation and Incomplete Combustion uf Fuel Sunlight+ N01-'Atomic 0 Sunlight±02 Excited 02 Atomic 0+02 -n.O~ (Ozone) Plant Dsmage PAN± Formaldehyde± Etcetera ±03 (Ozone) ...~. Eye!rritation Rubber Cracking Fig. 8. Starting substances for smog are nitro- gen o~ides and hydrocas'bone. The critical first step leading to group of oxidizing substances is photodissoclatioa of NO5; this yields atomic 0 that joins molecular oxygen to produce ozone. Oxidants attack hydrocarbons and produce re- active free radicals of several kinds which are also capable of attacking hydrocarbons and par- ticipating in other reactions as i~dicatcd. As dis- cussed in story, eye irritation may relate more to NO2 content than to final reaction products shown. Hydrocarbons + ~*Oxidant Pool it Free Radicals Free lladlcals+NO3 Petoxyacylnitrates (PAN), Formaldehyde, Etcetera 2- Ic mixtures of PAGENO="0039" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 639 THE ME Formaldehyde I - S - Acetone 1.0 / . -. - ,.- hon monoxide 0 20 40 60 00 100 Time (mis) Fig. 10. Stanford Resroreh irrodwtiss rbsnbrr study of a few years bock illustrates diversity ond varying eaneentratisas of substances pro- duced, starting with isobutene and nitrogen di- oxtde. Cosnponnd X has since been tentatively identified by most workers as peroxyaeyt nitrate. ppm; this limit is for 5-day-a-week, 8-hr-a- day exposures of healthy adult workers. A value of twice this amount or 10 ppm observed in a single measurement in ambient air in Los Angeles would result in a so-tailed "third alert" in which all-out community protsction measures would he authorized. Most of the time the LA coocentratiosi of NO and NO~- which are usually measured together since there appears to be no control purpose to be served in distinguishing between them in view of the rapid conversion of NO into N02-stays below about 1 ppm. One thing that may help keep NO and NO2 well below more potentially dangerous levels most of the time is that during the daylight houro, they are con- tinually used up in maintaining the series of equilibrium reactions with ultraviolet light and hydrocarbons. But some knowledgeable scientists, such as Philip Leighton of Stanford University and Albert Bush of UCLA, have warned that reducing hydrocarbons alone- especially to drastically low levels such as 100 ppm or less-may in fact raise the total of ni- trogen oxides in the air over the long term, eventually perhaps to more dangerous levels. Hamming and moat others discount this pos- sibility, however. Such fundamental uncertainties as these msst have been what Dr. P. J. Lawther (then of the British Medical Research Council Group on air pollution) had in mind, several yesrs ago, when he said regarding British urban air pollution: "We have no more right to ex- pect an easy solution than to overlook a sim- ple answer. The field is bedevilled by paradox, not the least striking of which is the per- sistence with which we apply exquisitely fine techniques to crude problems and at the same time expect delicate mechanieme to yield to the hammer blows of our clumsier methods." The British are plagued by pollution prob- lems characterized more by SO2 and its in- volved atmospheric permutations to SO~ and sulfuric acid than by the automotive kind of smog. But this is changing, of course, as autos and traffic congestion increase, just as the S02-complex never was exclusively a British problem. Sulfur dioxide in the air comes mostly from combustion of sulfur-containing fuels-coal and low-grade or residual fuel oils are the chief offenders. Natural gas and light petro- leum fractions like kerosenes and gasolines are relatively low in sulfur or can be made so with little difficulty. Some 802 also comes from the smelting of sulfide ores. The ash constituents invariably present in the air help to catalyti- cally oxidize 802 to SO:s, and hydration of SO2 yields the sulfuric acid which is responsible for the blue color typical of SOfladen exhaust plumes. The more difficult and critical transforma- tion of 802 to SO;~ is probably accomplished photochemically by near ultraviolet radiation; this mechanism may be most effective in the presence of particles of manganese and iron salts or oxides, under the moisture-rich con- ditions available in most stack gases and dur- ing humid weather conditions more generally. No doubt the strongly oxidizing atmosphere created in typical photochemical (Los An- geles) smog also contributes significantly to this otherwise slow oxidation step. Both kinds of smog are invariably present to greater or lesser degree in urban atmospheres and their deleterious effects, as to some extent their photochemical histories, are intricately en- tangled, but distinguishable. The U.S. Clean Air Act specifically recog- nized the sulfur problem too, and it directed Health, Education and Welfare to conduct a major R&D effort aimed at developing cheaper and better techniques for removing sulfur from the offending fuels. Much sdditional work is being done on an alternative potential solution-removing the sulfur compounds from exhaust gases before emitting them to the atmosphere. Several lines of development look promising here. Some involve adsorption of 802 on activated carbon char or reacting it with alkalized alumina. Others approach the problem as the atmosphere itself does, by catalytically oxidizing the SO9 to S0~ and con- PAGENO="0040" 640 ADEQTJACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT verting the latter to sulfuric acid, which is ap- parently recoverable in amounts sufficient to at least partly defray the costs. It's an iii wind that blows pollution your way When you think about the huge dimensions of the ocean of air that lies above us, it's hard to believe that the activities of urban man, which are carried on over just about 1% of the total land surface, can create vast, slowly drifting, Sargasso-like seas of pollution. In fact, the major portion of man's airborne effiuvia is carried away by turbulent winds and vertical updrafts and diluted to undetect- able concentrations throughout the entire 10- mile thickness of the lower atmosphere. But a considerable proportion often cannot be dis- persed this way. With surprising frequency-an average of perhaps one-third of the time over much of the U.S. for example-there is an effective limit to the upward dispersion of contami- nants, at altitudes of 500 feet or less. This upper limit to dispersion is created either locally or over large regions by a ther- mal inversion, a condition you're probably fa- miliar with, in which the normal decrease of air temperature with height above the ground which heats it is reversed. At some elevation above the ground-known as the inversion base-air temperatures begin to rise instead of continuing to drop (see margin). This anomalous temperature gradient persists up- ward throughout the inversion layer to an altitude which is determined by large-scale weather patterns that create the inversion in the first place. The base of the inversion layer acts as the effective lid. Imagine a bold parcel of polluted air-such as a hot, high-velocity jet of stack gases-one that has the temerity to try to rise into the inversion layer itself. Although it cools markedly on the way up, on penetrating the inversion layer it fInds itself much cooler and more dense than the surrounding air, in which the temperature is going up not down. Conse- quently, it quickly sinks back toward the inver- sion base and has little if any time in which to disperse its pollutants to higher altitudes. It and its burden of pollution are confined to the appropriately named "mixing layer" that lies below the inversion base and extends to the ground. The average prevailing thickness or depth of this mixing layer varies with time and place-it reaches a mile or two at times-but it is always far less than the full thickness of the lower atmosphere. Yet, in general these mixing depths would suffice to dilute pollutant concentrations, if the winds that handle hori- zontal circulation blew hard enough and with enough turbulence for enough of the time. At some seasons of the year and at many places they don't, Still worse, winds that are too weak can compound pollution troubles. Helmut Landsberg, head of the climatology section of the U.S. Weather Bureau, has shown this for the northeastern chain of cities, ex- tending from Richmond, Virginia, to Port- land, Maine. When weak winds involving 100 miles or less of net air transport a day blow the right way-in this case mostly from the south or southwest (see margin)-the pol- lutants emitted in any one city either stay in the local area or are wafted gently toward the next city in the chain, perhaps adding to its pollution burden. Such weather conditions are far from rare for at least parts of the chain. This doesn't mean that recent comments by New York City's Mayor Wagner, in which he described the city as lying at the end of a "3000-mile long sewer" of air pollution, are technically correct (as pollution control people in California are at some pains to point out). It does mean however that regional airsheds exist. These, at some seasons and some places, are in many ways analogous to watersheds, In both cases pollution can increase in the down- stream direction. But air, unlike water, can- not be cleaned up for general use. Pollution in it can only be controlled atthe source. In order to do this we're going to need more and better ways to monitor and trace the movements of pollution clouds that migrate downwind, from the central cities into suburbs and the sur- rounding countryside. Characteristic patterns of pollution-caused damage to plants offers some grim help here. In the U. S. some data vital for these and other purposes are starting to come in from a PHS National Air Sampling Network of more than 200 stations-urban and rural- PAGENO="0041" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 641 which have been operated since 1953 on an in- termittently scheduled basis that has yielded some 4500 samples a year. A little closer ap- proach to the kind of assault that's needed has been provided by a recently activated PHS system of highly automated, computer inte- grated monitoring stations which provide con- tinuous 24-hr-a-day, every day, measurements of CO, SO2, NO, NO2, 03 total oxidants, and total hydrocarbons-at one location in each of nine cities. Society, or somebody, must call the shots Technical needs in pollution research and control activities are in many ways obvious. They can and will be met as soon as sufficient resources are devoted to them. The problems of setting quality criteria for air, and seeing to it that they are enforced, are much more difficult. Solving them requires not only scien- tific, technical, and medical data and decisions but social and moral ones as well. There's nothing new about this. Society requires many such decisions. In the field of nuclear energy for example, the Federal Radiation Council was established to assess social benefits versus risks in face of the current overwhelming scientific judge- ment that there is no threshold or limiting value below which adverse biological effects do not occur-there is no "safe" level of ex- posure to radioactivity other than zero. There are comparable problems in the air-pollution field, especially in the case of polycyclic hydro- carbons like 3-4 benz-pyrene which are potent carcinogenic agents in experimental animals. Vernon MacKenzie of PHS notes that poly- cyclic hydrocarbons in air appear to come mostly from coal combustion, whether in furnaces or engines, from burning waste materials, and from some industrial proc- esses. They cannot be practically eliminated from the air unless the total economic and technical fabric of society is altered. Yet there is no safe exposure other than zero to chemi- cals such as these. What should the attitude of an agency like the Public Health Service be in setting allow- able limits for substances such as these, charged as it is with a vested interest and proper bias on the side of public health and safety? Should PHS do the job of setting cri- teria, or should it be delegated instead to a cabinet-level body like the Federal Radiation Council, or to some other august body like the National Academy of Sciences, which can juggle benefits versus risks through less safety-tinted glasses? As one who has breathed for some time and hopes to continue doing so for a long time to come, I hope that someone with a more health-biased viewpoint will do the job, as it is now in the process of doing it. Soon. A cosmic Joker In the deck? Even complete success in controlling pol- lution of the kinds we have been discussing may prove to be a Pyrrhic victory in the not very long distant end. There is inconclusive evidence that the atmosphere's total content of carbon dioxide has increased by some 13% due to man's increasingly industrial way of life since the 19th century. CO3 is not usually thought of as a pollutant since it is not harmful. Indeed it and water are the ideal non-toxic end products of all fuel combus- tion and metabolic processes. The observed increase agrees strikingly well with estimates of the CO2 increase that could be expected since the 19th century on the basis of sharp rises in fossil fuel use. Projecting such esti- mates into the future, it appears that CO3 in the atmosphere may be 50% higher by the year 2000 than in pre-industrial days, assum- ing that atomic power doesn't replace power from fossil fuels to any significant degree. This increase in itself shouldn't bother anybody's breathing or other activities, but it might have larger-scale effects on the cli- mate of the entire earth. CO3 is an impor- tant absorber of the longer wave infrared en- ergy that the earth's surface reradiates as it cools through the nights and the seasons. If all of the extra CO2 remains in the atnios- phere, instead of being taken up by plants or dissolved in sea water, and nobody knows exactly how much is removable in these ways, it seems likely that the earth's average tem- perature could go up several degrees. Some provocative though largely speculative esti- mates suggest that this increase might be enough to melt all or most of the glacial ice on earth. In turn this would raise sea level everywhere by a few hundred feet-enough to put most of smoggy Manhattan and the Los Angeles Basin under water, for example. Which is indeed one long-range solution to the problem of polluted urban air. PAGENO="0042" THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS, NC: ~ OCTOBER 1965 ~iSj~écrU Airborne asphyxia- an international problem Reprinted with permission by the U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Pubtic Health Service ~42 PAGENO="0043" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 643 al - is equally in- n. Cities such as ~, , Dusseldor~ and other in- dustrial centers in the L.tr Valley are plagued by air Airborne a~ Air pollution is no frightening Gordon D. F'riedlander Staff Writer if one happens to be a o-pack-a-day category, and tay be more healthful for one does not Fig. 1. "Darkness at high noon-a view of 42nd Street in New York City under a blanket of heavy smog caused by a temperature inversion, on October 20, 1963.. PAGENO="0044" 644 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT showIng stack operation of industrial ment. Fig. 3 (below). Aerial vlewof St. Louis showing a ..istallation of air pollution control equip. several.square.mile area of the city under a pall of indus. ame stack after installation of control equip- trial air pollution. PAGENO="0045" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FO1~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT 645 -1v Coal Lrch, and iene ~ of con- IC Lit ywilli. n ~iates projrn indicate that the electric utility i will require about 40 percent of the total available energy-the equivalent of 1.6 million tona of bituminous coal. Of this amount, coal is expected to account for at least 600 000 tons, even at the optimum rate of nuclear power introduction. This level of coal use would be 25 percent more than the total amount of coal mined in the United States in 1964. These statistics indicate the continuing importance of coal in providing a significant portion of the nation's total energy requirements. Realistically speaking, any restrictions on the use of ~ coal for electric generation would have a serious economic impact on the welfare of the coal-producing regions of Fig. 4. Smoke belching from an electric utility corn- the United States, and it would impose cost penalties for present and future power generation. Air pollution, however, presents one of the most serious threats to the coal industry in the fulfillment of its predicted future as a source of fuel for electric generation. The 2000-MW conventional steam-electric power plants, presently in the design stages, will consume about 20 000 tons of coal per day. This could mean that, in addition to a large volume of carbon monoxide being produced through incomplete combustion, between 700 and 800 tons of sulfur would be burned to produce an intolerable level of sulfur dioxide. In the viciout cycle wherein urban population densities are increasing, the quantities of energy required in our burgeoning economy will also spiral upward. At some predictable time it will be necessary to decrease the quality of coal used for electric generation as the reserves of high-grade fuel dwindle. And,- since the lower-grade bituminous coals contain a higher sulfur content, the problem of air pollution control will be intensified. Temperature inversion is a meteorological phenomenon which, when occurring over large cities, can have very serious consequences Essentially, temperature inversion Mining, meteorology, and medicine is a perverse atmospheric condition in which the air tem- An entire session at the recent American Power Con- perature increases with height above the earth's surface. ference in Chicago clearly indicated that air pollution Normally, temperature decreases with height in the lower has become a prime interdisciplinary concern to both the atmosphere up to the troposphere, and then the tern- electric utilities and industry. The participants in the perature increases in the stratosphere- The rate of decre- panel discussion' on this subject included Dr. Bertram ment, or lapse rate, is about 3.3'F per 1000 feet of D. Dinman, Associate Professor of Preventive Medicine altitude. at Ohio State University; Francis E. Gartrell, Assistant Inversions are caused by radiative cooling of a lower Director of Health, Tennessee Valley Authority; Abra- air layer, aubsidence heating of an upper layer, or the ham Gerber, secretary of the System Development Corn- advection of warm air over cooler air or of cool air under mittee, American Electric Power Service Corporation; warmer air. Radiative exchange between the earth's sur- James R. Jones, Company, Inc.; Hai Bureau of Mines, I. Dr. L A. 1.. University panelists wi contamination. In addition to London, the industrial midland cities of Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, and Liverpool suffer from the same malady. With the advent of the megalopolis and vast urban industrial sprawls, air pollution is no longer the exclusive property of any one country-it is rapidly becoming a worldwide menace. Later in this article we will discuss in detail the individual air pollution problems of five American cities and what efforts-if any-are being made to remedy the condi- tions. The Fig. 5 bar graph dramatically indicates the major air contaminants and quantities emitted per year in the United States, while Fig. 6 shows the amount of sus- pended dusts and other particulates in relation to urban population classifications. Note that there is a steady rise in the number of particulates with every increase in popu- lation classification. PAGENO="0046" 646 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Pollen tndu strict dust and ash iaa ~isa face and she atmosphere on ctear nights coots the ground and the adjacent tayer of air, This makes the adjacent tayer colder than the layers immediately above, and thereby creates a ground inversion that can vary from a few feet to a few thousand feet in thickness. Radiative cooling of the sop of a cloud bask or dsst layer can also create sn inversion. In this case, the sinking air warms at the adiabatic lapse rate of 5.5°F per 1000 feet, and this sinking sir can produce a layer warmer than the layer of air that is immediately adjacent to she earth's surface. Cool sir that displaces warmer air, such as air that blows from a cool ocean onto swarmer land, can cause a pronounced inversion that persists as long as the flow continues. Similarly, warm air may flow over a cold sur- face layer, especially one trapped in a valley, and this may cause an inversion. The episodes of acute air pollu- tion in the Meuue River Valley of Belgium, in 1930; in Donors, Pa., in 1948; and in London, England, in 1952 were caused by this latter phenomenon. Inversions effectively suppress vertical air movement and cause an atmospheric stagnation in which smoke and other volatile contaminants cannot rise from the earth's surface. Persistent inversions have been experienced in Los Angeles, New York, London, and other industrist mesropotises. Under such conditions, lethal layers of sulfur dioxide, soot, carbon monoxide, ozone, and nitrous oxide can become statically entrapped for days us lime. Climatologieal faceors. There are meteorological and rlimatologicsl factors that influence she action of air- borne, volatile chemicals. The most common of these variables are temperature, wind velocity and turbulence, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and intensity and duration of sunlight. Thermal resctions, involving the corrosion of materials, Natural dust Suitor nx,des 70 Other as 5 50 20 30 45 50 55 Emissions in the United States, millions ut isns per year Pig. 5. Horizontal bar graph showing principal maisr air contaminants that are emit- ted par year in the United Stases. Ptg. 8. Graph ahswing the quannieles sf nsspended partieatates and their retasisnship so srban pspstatlsn rencentratisnu. 1857-test geometric mean uaiurs h3 *ea 20 40 55 55 105 520 1d5 155 180 Micrnerams per,cubic meter of air PAGENO="0047" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 647 Fig. 7. A-Chart of exhaust emissions from gas- fired furnaces. B-Similar Chart for oil-tired fur- naces. C-Chart for coal-fired equipment indicates highest contaminant emissions. AmmSnia Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen Solids Sullur Exhaust emissions, lb/million Blu will approximately double in rate for each 18°F rise in temperature. While temperature is not usually considered to have an effect on photochemical reactions, recent re- search has indicated that photochemical oxidant pro- duction and the rate of photooxidation of hydrocarbons are accelerated by increased temperature in synthetic smog. And there is evidence to indicate that eye irritants could alto be increased in the atmosphere by the elevation of air temperaturt. It is known that when the air temperature is ralued, the respiratory rates of humans and animals are increased. And the toxic effectu of many pollutants are affected by temperature changes. For example, in one experiment, the lethal dose of ozone for rats in a temperature environ- ment of 90°F was 2.6 ppm for a 4-hour exposure; while at 75°F, the lethal dosage for a 6-hour exposure was 6-8 ppm. This would seem to indicate that the permissible levels of air pollution should be revised in accordancewith seasonal mean temperatures. Humidity can influence the effects of air pollution. Its presence often causes more rapid corrosion of metals by certain chemical substances. Many acidic gases, such as 1.5 2.0 sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide, and chlorine, are much more corrosive in atmospheres that A contain high humidity than they are in the pretence of drier air. And since humidity directly affects the heat transfer between humans and their environment, it will, in turn, influence the effect of expouure on humans. High wind velocity and air turbulence are generally beneficial because pollutants are dispersed and diluted more rapidly. It is known that sunlight is an important factor in the effects of air pollution since eye irritants, plant toxins, and ozone are formed in the air by photochemical reac- tions. Air pollution experts are aware, for instance, that some types of soot deposited on motor vehicles will damage the lacquer in the presence of sunlight. If the soot is removed, however before sunlight can touch the finish, no damage will result. Atmospheric pressure has a relevant influence in air pollution. The oxygen pressure in the air decreases as the height above sea level is increased. The immediate 1 5 20 physiological effect of increased altitude is a more rapid blood flow rate; then, the involuntary rate of respiration B increases. As the body adapts to the new atmospheric environment, the concentration of blood hemoglobin C rises. The ambient pressure in populated areas of the United States varies somewhat more than 0.2 atmosphere (assuming that 1.0 atmosphere equals about 15 psi). For relative comparison, the instantaneous rate for a given concentration of air contaminant may be expressed as dx/dl = K. At a higher elevation, such as Denver, Cob., with a pressure approximately 0.8 of that at sea level, the instantaneous rate would be dx/dI = 0.64K. or 36 percent slower. Therefore, pressure considerations are important in establishing standards that are designed to prevent the formation of secondary pollutants that are synthesized by either photochemistry or oxidation from primary con- taminants. Medically, a dim view. Sulfur dioxide is increasingly emerging as a prime villain in the air pollution drama. This contaminant is a major by-product of fossil-fuel combustion from the lower grade fuel oils and coal. London's smog, a true smoke suspension in fog, has for many centuries been a prime example of traditional air Exhaust emissions, lb/million Btu Oil 1.0 1.5 Exhaust emissions, lb/million Btu Coal PAGENO="0048" 648 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT pollution. Because England imports limited quantities of high-grade fossil fuels, the typical London "pea souper" consists mainly of sulfur compounds, particularly SO,, which are produced by the combustion of bitu- minous coal, low-grade heating oil, acid manufacture, ore smelting, and other industrial manufacturing processes. In the United States, New York and Chicago have record quantities of SO3 in theit atmospheres that are second only to London's. In all, about 60 percent of the American population is exposed to continuous peril from atmospheric contaminants (see Fig. 7). And it does not re- quire a medical opinion to suggest that pollutants capable of corroding metal, darkening white paint (Fig, 8), dis- integrating stone, dissolving nylon hose, and cracking rubber are somewhat less than beneficial to human lung tissue. There is ample circumstantial evidence to link air pollution with asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, pulmonary emphysema, lung cancer, and even the com- mon cold. In 1962, the chairman of a panel of medical experts at the National Conference on Air Pollution Con- trol stated: "The evidence that air pollution contributes to the pathogenesis of chronic respiratory disease is over- whelming." During the symposium on the clean air problem at the recent American Power Conference, Dr. Dinman, in his opening statement, gave a concise description of the pathological effects of sulfur dioxsde: "To understand the effects of SO, on health, it is neces- nary to delineate those mechanisms whereby sulfur oxides alter human function, On a mechanistic basis, we may conceive of air conduction tubes (the tracheobronchial tree) as a series of interconnecting ducts. These ducts have the unusual capacity of changing their cross- sectional area. This is accomplished by contraction of circumferentially aligned muscles. Thus, given a proper stimulus at certain receptions in the wall of this air con- duction system, input from these receivers arrives at the brain. A flow of impulses, in turn, is transmitted to these surrounding muscles, which leads to their contraction with a decrease in cross-sectional area. "The consequences of such decrease in cross-sectional area are apparent. Consider that a fixed volume of air per unit time must be available for oxygen extraction by the blood. Therefore, an increase in velocity is the only method whereby this fixed volume may be moved through this attenuated system. Obviously, the energy required per unit time to obtain this work function is increased. In individuals who have cardiac disease, these increased demands are met with difficulty and subsequent deteriora- tion. Another complication stems from one other con- sequence of SO, or SO3 (sulfur trioxide) or H,SO, (sul- furic acid) impingement on the lining of the gas-blood exchange surfaces. Impingement of these irritant polar compounds stimulates the release of a diluent at such af- fected surfaces. While this dilution increases pH toward normal levels, at the same time it imposes a thickened barrier to gas transfer across the membrane. Since this harrier is but a few hundred microns thick, this imposes no significant load on gas transfer in the normal person, PAGENO="0049" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 649 Adsorbent Purified flue gas-'j ~ Adsorber - Rawflue gas- - Recovered SO2 4--- Desorber - - co2 seal Make-up Vibrating screen Ash and coke dust~ Adsorbent However, in those persons with already thickened gas exchange membranes due to chronic lung disease, this increased thickness essentiatly causes a barrier to oxygen diffusion with resultant asphyxia, and further deteriora- tion as a result of decreased oxygen availability so the vital organs. While there is much data from animal experi- mentation, there is relatively little human data even in normal persons. in such persons, 4-6 ppm of SO2 produces coaasistently reproducible changes in airway resistance within JO seconds to 4 minutes.. Nitrous oxide is no laughing matter. Some medical experts regard nitrous oxide (N00), the common "laugh- ing gas" administered as an anesthetic by dentists for tooth extraction, in the same insidious category as SOS. Recent evidence indicates that N50 has teratogenic-and possibly carcinogenic-effects on animal and human receptors. In air pollution, this gas is emitted as a by- product of hydrocarbon combustion. Fig. 9. Block diagram of the Bureau of Mines' alkalized alumina process. Fig. 10. Diagram showing the mechanical con- figuration of a Reinfuft process pilot plant. In therapeutic medicine, bone marrow depressant ef- fects have been observed as a result of the protracted ad- ministration of N50 to control convulsions in tetanus victims. And, although any conceivable concentration of the gas as an air pollutant would be very low, the cumula- tive effects of continued exposure to this gas may be deleterious to human receptors. Catalysts and buffers. Dinman further observed that wtth the addition of any suspended particulates, of less than 5 microns in size, the response of the human re- ceptor to SO, may bç accentuated. The reasons for this physiological reaction are twofold, andmay beascribedto 1. The interposition of particulate surfaces of relatively large areas for irritant gas adsorption, which would in- crease the gas concentration per unit volume. 2. The increased probability of impingement, which is a result of the different kinetic behavior of particulate vs. gas phase. Although many particulates tend to aggravate the bio- logical damage potential of SOS, it is apparent from actual case histories that the biopotency of these parliculales isa function of their chemical properties. It is known that manganese catalyzes the conversion of SO0 to H2S04, but it is also possible for some particulates to buffer the physiolOgical reaction of SOs. In the phenomenon of buffering it is known that in- haled hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other sulfhydryl com- pounds can protect mice from Otherwise lethal exposures to ozone. Inhaled formaldehyde and SO~ produced much more resistance to air flow in guinea pigs when applied with a physiologically inert aerosol than did the same con- centrations of the gases alone. Knowing the concentration of a pollutant does not necessarily indicate its physiological effect upon a re- ceptor. The presence of other contaminants may either inhibit or increase the expected effect. Yet, almost no re- search has been conducted to determine the effects on re- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ Cleaned gas Forced draft tan____________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I L~j _..-Elevatur Buuster ~rbing PAGENO="0050" 650 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT ceptors of long-term exposure to known admixtures of pollutants. Nevertheless, many proposed air standards for urban areas are predicated on consideration of the ex- posure effects of a single pollutant at a time. The final medical factor is individual sensitivity or allergic reaction. Heretofore this hat been a rather vague and nebulous concept, but recent evidence is accumu- lating to verify thit phenomenon. Methods of reducing SO2 and SO, emissions from coal Based upon statistics available for the year 1962, and by combining a knowledge of the sulfur content of coal seams being mined in various states, Table t indicates the range of sulfur contents and the corresponding per- centages consumed in the United States. In view of the very large estimated demand for electric power generation in geographic areas where co~1 is the preferred fuel, the quantities of SO2 released to the atmosphere will rise alarmingly unless means are de- veloped either to remove the sulfur before combustion or to remove the SO2 from the stack gases. One of the prime difficulties in achieving the former objective is that a portion of the sulfur content (20-60 percent)is chemically bound as organic sulfur, and this can only be removed by very complex and expensive chemical processes. At present, three high-temperature processes' are being operationally tested for electric utility applications. These are: the alkatized alumina, the Reinluft, and the Penn- sylvania Electric. Bureau of Mines' alkalized alwnina process. In this process, flue gas containing SO~ and SO, are absorbed by atkalized alumins-Al(O0-l),-in a vessel at a tem- perature of 625°F (see Fig. 9). The alkalized alumina is regenerated in a second vessel at 1200°F, by using pro- ducer gas or re-formed natural gas. The product gas from the regenerator is then introduced to a sulfur recovery plant in which elemental sulfur is produced. The flue gas used in the Bureau's pilot plant is made from the combustion of powdered coal and it contains all the impurities that might affect the absorption and re- generation cycles. Tests have been conducted to estab- lish the optimum conditions of temperature and time for both the absorption and regeneration, and various pro- cedures for preparing the alkalized alumina have been tried because, in the repeated cycles, physical and chemi- cal changes occur that may degrade or poison the ab- sorbent. The experimentation wilh this process has led to the construction of a larger pilot plant in which variables can be studied more efficiently. The advantages of the process include a low pressure drop of the flue gas during absorp- tion, operation over a wide temperature range of 250°-650°F, and the ability to obtain elemental sulfur as the end by-product. Reinluft process. In this method, flue gas at 300°F is forced upward through a filter bed of activated char- coal (see Fig. 10) that is slowly descending through the adsorber. The SO, is adsorbed directly and the flue gas is then cooled to 220°F. At this temperature, SOs is oxidized to SO,, which is then adsorbed on the activated charcoal. The SO, combines with the adsorbed water from the flue gas to form dilute H,,SO,. The activated charcoal, with the adsorbed dilute H,SO,, is next regenerated in a separate vessel by the recirculation of product gas heated to 700°F. The dissociated }lsSO, products react chemically with a portion of the carbon to form a gas that contains a high concentration of C,O and SO2. The taller gas is converted to H,SO, in a contact acid plant. After cleansing, the regenerated char is re- cycled to the adsorber. At present, two commercial plants are under construc- tion in Germany to use this method of SO, removal. One of these plants will service flue gases produced from low- grade fuel oil, and the other will be used in connection with a coal-fired installation. The Reinluft process is particularly feasible if there isa nearby industrial requirement for sulfuric acid. The Pennaylvania Electric process. The Pennsylvania Electric Company has constructed a pilot plant at its Sewart generaltng station to remove SO, by the catalytic conversion of SO, to SO,. Sulfuric acid is formed and collected on the cooling water stream that contains the SO,. The objectives of the pilot plant are fourfold: 1. To determine the effect of actual flue gas, with time, on catalyst activity. 2. To establish the degree to which the flue gases must be precleaned to prevent catalyst fouling. 3. To calibrate the rate of catalytic oxidation of SO, and flue gas pressure drop so that large-scale plants can be sized. 4. To determine removal methods for the acid and the quality of the acid produced. Reports indicate that the pilot plant has been operated successfully and that adequate data have been gathered for the design and construction of a full-scale plant. Many variables, however, still must be investigated, such as the life expectancy of the equipment, required con- struction materials, and the character of the maintenance problems that will be experienced. At the present time there is insufficient information l~ ut Quality of coal used by electric lllty Industry in the United States-.-1962 Sulfur Content, Production, percent percent 0-1.5 32.0 1.5-2.0 9.0 2.0-2.5 6.6 2.5-3.0 19.7 3.0-3.5 23.0 3.5 plus 9.7 "Despite the evidence of our tenses, only in rela- tively recent years have we recognized that pollu- tants in theair have a direct bearing on health. And there are still doubting Thomases who main- tain that pollution cannot be linked to disease be- cause no specific etiologic agent in the air has been identified as responsible for a specific disease." -James E. Perkins, M.D., Managing Director, National Tuberculosis Association PAGENO="0051" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT 651 available to make accurate cost estimates for the com- parison of the three methods. Each of the described processes has its unique advantages, but each requires ad- ditional development to verify critical process variables that have an important bearing on the eventual eco- nomics. Also, market studies are needed to evaluate the industrial requirements of the manufactured by-products. Magnetic separation of sulfur. An interesting new process, called magnetic separation,2 has been reported by the Russians. Essentially, this method involves a flash coking step in which the iron pyrites containing the sulfur fraction in the coal are modified into a magnetic form to simplify the separation procedure. In this technique, pulverized coal is heated to about 640°F for a period of 2-5 minutes, during which time a jet of steam and air is blown through the heated coal. This treatment produces a surface layer of magnetized material on each pyrite crystal, and separation is made in a magnetic field of 10 000 gauss. By discarding this magnetic fraction, the sulfur content of the coal can be reduced by about 0.5 percent and the ash content by 50 percent. The U.S. Bureau of Mines is investigating this process to determine the feasibility of its application to the treatment of coal in the United States. SO, monitoring and control-iVA experience During the past 15 years, the Tennessee Valley Au- thority has added 52 coal-fired, steam-electric generating units, located in eight plants and ranging in Size from 125 to 650 MW, to its power production facilities. And a single-unit plant of 900.-MW capacity (Bull Run) is scheduled to go on the line in 1966. Beginning with the first large steam-electric station, TVA conducted extensive air pollution studies at each plant site. The experience and data obtained by these studies have been applied in planning air pollution con- trol at subsequent plants and for additional units in existing plants. Long-term records of meteorological data and SO, concentrations from permanent monitoring stations have Fig. 11. Graph showing comparison-frequency distribution of 30-minute average SO, concentra- tions in an urban area and an area in the vicinity of a steam-electric power plant. 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100 Total time that SO2 moats or exceeds indicated concentration, percent (0,1% frequency is approximately two times per year) \~ ~111 \ 2. - ~50'~stsc~ I "i~ I / U,, ~ ~f .-~. ~ - °..- ~ ~8O0'stac~ 300' ~tack5 ~ ~00' stacks t~ar~a ~iL~ Distance from plant, miles Fig. 12. Calculated profiles of SO, ground level concentra- tions, with various stack heights, for power plant with two stacks and an SO, emission rate of 110 tons per day. Cleansed gas F~]~LI1 F 2 Polluted g5s Fig. 13. Diagram of a simple electrostatic precipitator. "1" indicates corona wire; `2," grounded tube. Fig. 14. Vertical-view diagram of a two-stage electrostatic precipitator. `1" Indicates grounded'cylinders; "2," corona wires; "3," grounded collector pjates; "4," charged plates are similar to "2" in polarity. I _____ Polluted gas 0 1 4 ____________ Cteansed gas -+ * 2 4- `~"~ ---`+ I 3 01 43 .2 43 01 I 4 ________ i. S 0 -0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 PAGENO="0052" 652 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT been augmented by extensive mobile sampling by car and helicopter equipment and by full-scale atmospheric dis- persion studies. Since most of the steam-electric plants in the TVA syttem are geographically located in areas re- mote from other significant sources of SO~, it is felt that the test results are most closely representative of the flue gas distribution patterns of modern coal-fired power plants. The SO2 concentrations in these tests refer to 30-minute average concentrations, Frequency distribution of SO2 concentrations. A log- arithmic plot of frequency of SOs concentrations at fixed monitoring stations has consistently indicated a fairly straight tine. Figure Il shows this distribution as meas- ured by an autometer situated where maximum concen- trations occurred at ground level in the vicinity of a 4-unit plant, with two 500-foot-high stacks, and with a total generating capacity of 1050 MW. For the sampling period-approximately 19 months-the highest re- corded concentration was about 0.6 ppm for three 50-minute periods. And SO2 concentrations were 0.2 ppm or above for only eighty-four 30-minute periods, or approximately 0.40 percent of the time. Similar data obtained from Public Health Service studies in Nashville, Tenn., are also plotted in Fig. 11. Although the maximum SO~ concentration recorded was only about 0.3 ppm, the concentrations of this gas were 0.2 ppm or more 14.1 percent of the time. And the esti- mated S0~ emissions in the urban area were less than half of that recorded at the power plant. Although higher concentrations of pollution in urban areas tend to occur during periods of low wind velocity and temperature inversion, 1/se higher levels of pollution in the vicinity of large power plants tend to occur during moderate to high wind speeds and neutral atmospheric stability conditions. Since none of the TVA plants are located in large urban areas, the data do not provide a direct quantitative measurement of the contribution of a large power plant to an urban pollution problem. But data analysis from an autometer located in a small town near one of the large plants indicated that S0~ in de- tectable amounts was present 14 percent of the time, Effect and influence of stack height. Monitoring data and data obtained from full-scale dispersion studies have been used in estimating stack height requirements for TVA plants. An example of estimates, made by empirically derived formulas, based upon monitoring data, is shown in Fig. 12. The subject of this graphic plot was a two-unit, two-stack plant, with a generating capacity of 1800 MW, and an estimated SO5 emission rate of 810 tons per day. This emission rate is calculated empirically from SO~ monitoring data at plants with 250-, 300-, and 500-foot-high stacks. The curve for a 400-foot- high stack is interpolated, while the curves for the 600- and 800-foot-high stacks were extrapolated. The electrostatic precipitator-TVA experience. The practical application of the electrostatic precipitator was first demonstrated by F. G. Cottrell in 1906. Essen- tially, it is a device that is used so remove liquid chemical mists or solid particulates from a gas in which they are suspended. Electrostatic precipitation is a two-stage process. In the first step, the gas containing the suspended particulates is passed through an electric, or corona, dis- charge area in which ionization of the gas occurs. The ions produced collide with the suspended particles and impart an electric charge to them. These charged particles then drift toward an electrode of opposite polarity, and they are deposited upon this electrode, where their elec- tric charge is neutralized. In its most elementary form, the pres~ipitator configura- tion may consist merely of a vertical tube that contains an insulated concentric wire (see Fig. 13). When a dc po- tential of 10-100 kV is applied to the central wire, a corona discharge occurs in a small area surrounding the wire. The suspended particulates are ionized in the corona discharge and migrate to the tube watt. If the suspension is liquid, it will accumulate on the wall and coalesce into droplets that can be drained from the base of the tube. Suspended solid particutates can be removed from the tube wall by mechanical vibrators or scrapers, and then discharged into a cyclone or dust collector at the bottom of the apparatus. In more complex configurations, the ionization may occur in one vessel and the deposition and precipitation in another. Figure 14 shows the plan view of a simplified two-chamber apparatus. In the first chamber, the par- ticles become charged but are prevented from depositing Fig. 15. Cutaway isometric view of an Opzel Plate Precipitator, a type manufactured by Re- search Cottrell, Inc. PAGENO="0053" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 653 / 696 + ( (6 -~ 0.58) 866.6 0.10 0.aS 0.20 0.25 Average 002 concentratIon, ppm - 3253.0 Fig. 16 Graph showing relationship between sus- pended psrticulates and SO concentration before and after installation of electrostatic precipitators. Fig. 17. Profile plot from aerial observations and temperature soundings at Kingston steam-elec- tric plant (TVA system) on November it, 1964. on the grounded cylinders by the appropriate adjustment of the rate of gao flow. In the uecond chamber-consisting of alternately charged, loosely packed and parallel plates-satisfactory precipitation can be attained by ap- plying slower potential than that required in the charging chamber, since there is no need for a corona discharge. The corona diacharge it usually produced by making the center wire the cathode, because precipitation ef- fIciency is greater under such an operating condition. Less ozone is produced, however, by reverting the polarity, atd a positively charged wire is employed in the cleaning of air if the presence of ozone is objectionable. The high-voltage directcurrent is generally produced by either mercury vapor or vacuum tube rectifiefs. The power requirements vary from 2-5 kWh per million cubic feet of polluted gas being treated, and the variation will be a function of the quantity, size, and physical properties of the particutates that are being removed. Figure 15 is a cutaway view of an Opzel plate precipi- tator, manufactured by Research-Cottrell, Inc. Effect of precipitators on suspended particulates in an ambient atmosphere. Electrostatic precipitators were installed to supplement mechanical ash collectors at one of the TVA plants after a special investigation was con- ducted to determine the relationships between SO2 concentrations and suspended particulates in the vicinity of the plant where maximum ground level concentralions of stack emissions occurred. Data were analyzed with the results shown in Fig. 16. From the two derived equations indicated on the graph, TVA estimated that the electro- static precipitators reduced the suspended particulates by 85 percent in the ambient atmotphere at ground level during those periods when SO2 was present. The TVA believes that an additional-although un- proved-possible benefit from the electrostatic pm- cipitators isa reduction in the maximum ground level SO2 concentrations in the vicinity of steam plant emissions. This is predicated on data indicating that the maximum recorded SO2 concentration during the four years of pre- cipitator operation is about 25 percent less than that re- corded prior to precipitator operation. Power plant pollution potential under air stagnation (temperature inversion) conditions. Air pollution control plans developed for the Kingston plant, until recently the largest steam-electric station in the TVA system, gave special attention to the SOs problem associated with periods of atmospheric stagnation. This plant is located on the floor of an Appalachian valley. The local terrain has parallel ridge features that vary from 400 to 1000 feet above the plant grade level. During the period from November 9-li, 1964, a tem- perature inversion occurred in the Kingston plant area. The U.S. Weather Bureau, by prearrangement, alerted the TVA beforehand, and precautionary air pollution control measures and monitoring were initiated. Sulfur dioxide autometers were checked at regular in- tervals, and mobile sampling was conducted during the 3-day period by specially equipped helicopters and cars. The frequency and concentration of SO2 recorded at ground level were no higher than during normal atmos- pheric conditions. The absence of an SO, buildup was at- tributed to penetration of the low-level inversion by the hot, high-velocity stack gases and dispersion of the smoke plume from the area by light and steady winds. Figure 17 indicates the time and temperature conditions aloft, . 60, .~ nc ) yr_v `I 400- ~ LEGEND I V Suspended particulafes mt/s3 O / X=S0~ppm / 5 = Car elusion coefficient 300 - L__.__ -Be ore insta laSso of electrastst c precipitafors - Alter installation of electrostatic precipitatars ~ / ..-~ Y=57.t+633. X-4057X2 / ~ (RmO.63) lCD - ~ - - - - 0 0.05 030 0.35 PAGENO="0054" 654 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY. FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT and the plume elevation during a timed sequence on November 10. From the data obtained during this monitoring it is possible that air pollution predictions should consider power plants as a special case for which normal meteor- ological criteria may not apply. The other half of the foggy, smoggy brew If the witch's brew concocted in the smokestacks of American industry seems appalling, cheer up; for it is only half of the dirty story. Most of the other half may be found in Fig. 18. The U.S. Public Health Service esti- mates that the 88 million motor vehicles on the nation's highways belch into the atmosphere about 350 000 tons of carbon monoxide, volatile hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide daily. The automobile population in the United States is increasing at more than double the rate of the human population! Urban traffic jams are providing civilization with one of its most diabolical methods of multiplying the problems of air pollution; and, unlesu something is done to correct this man-made plague, our metropolises will soon become obsolete and deadly places for human habitation. Pollution control devices for cars. In addition to assuring more complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in irsterrial combustion engines by simple car- buretor and ignition aystem adjustments, there are two basic devices that can effectively reduce the amount of air contaminants released from motor vehicle exhausts. For an investment of about $5, crankcase blowby units, which return unburned gases to the combustion cham- bers, can be installed. Properly maintained blowbys can reduce an automobile's hydrocarbon emission by at least 25 percent. There is also an "afterburner" device, which, when attached to the tailpipe of a motor vehicle, will complete the combustion of carbon monoxide and other unburned gases. When used in conjunction with a crankcase blowby, the afterburner would eliminate the major portion of pollutants now poisoning the air from this source. Fig. 18. View of a heasily tratficked Los Ar,gelen freeway shrouded in smog. PAGENO="0055" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 655 It is no secret that the automobile industry has been dragging its feet for a long time in resisting the factory installation of these control accessories. The weight of public opinion, and public officials who have been aroused by the menace of the motor vehicle situation, has forced the hand of the manufacturers. These devices will be required by law for 1966 model cars to be sold in California. A pollution survey, city by city The Pittsburgh story. Since the 1940s, a generation of young Pittsburghers has grown up convinced that the sky above them is really blue, ar I not murky gray as they were assured by their parents. And it is possible to put on a white shirt in the morning, wear it all day, and still find it reasonably clean. Housewives, too, are able to hang out a line of wash without having to relaunder it the same day. Before the 1940s, Pittsburgh was the classic American example of continual air pollution. Since the middle period of the Industrial Revolution, the "Smoky City" blamed its railroads and concentrated industry for its plight. The Pittsburgh Chamber of Commerce appointed its first committee on smoke abatement in 1899, and a smoke control ordinance was passed in 1906. For the next 35 years, the Chamber of Commerce and other civic groups hoped that education in matters of proper fuel combustion and pollution control devices would help to solve the problem. But the results of self-regulation were negligible; the situation deteriorated, and enforced regu- lation seemed to be the only answer. The City of Pittsburgh Smoke Control Ordinance was passed in 1941, and more stringent amendments were added in 1943, 1946, and 1951. Dual enforcement by Allegheny County and the city is in effect today. Under the provisions of the ordinance for smoke and air pollution control, limitations are established on the emission of smoke, fly ash, soot, cinders, toxic or radio- active substances, noxious acids, fumes, oxides, gases, and odors, or any other matter that may create atmos- pheric pollution. These regulations further stipulate that the home owner should do one of several things: 1. Burn highly volatile bituminous coal by installing a stoker. 2. Burn briquettes or other forms of prepared coal, coke, anthracite, or less volatile bituminous coal. 3. Use gas oroil. Emissions from furnaces of the steel and allied indus- tries are generally restricted to two parts of solids in every 3000 parts of gas, but these limits can vary some- what dependent upon the types of furnaces employed. The installation and repair of furnaces, boilers, and other fuel-burning equipment must be done under a permit issued by the terms of the Rules and Regulations of the Pittsburgh Smoke Control Ordinance. With the ex- ception of installations in private residences, furnaces or other fuel-burning equipment are subject to periodic in- spection by the Bureau of Air Pollution Control. To date, the result has been gratifying. Pittsburgh has an average sootfall of only 30 tons per square mile per month as compared with 60 tons for a similar ares and time period in New York. Chicago-soot, smoke, and steel. The nation's second largest metropolis-popUlation 4 million-is gravely endangered by both air and water pollution lrom the Calumet region of neighboring Indiana. The concentra- tion of steel mills at Hammond and Gary, a scent 15 miles from the Chicago loop, belch a continuous barrage of acrid fumes, and the smoke plumes from these emis- sions are an ever-present facet of the seascape over Lake Michigan. The legal aspects of this situation are complex. As one leading Chicago spokesman put it: "The cities and towns along the lakefront are not doing a good job of pollution control. And Illinois state agencies are unable to cope satisfactorily with the issues since interstate problems are involved." In view of this, the general sentiment among Chicago officiais is that the Federal Government should enforce antipollution con- trola under Congressional authority. Air pollution control is being handled by a special city agency. In the three years since its formation, this agency has held 2800 hearings, handled 5000 smoke complaints, inspected 50000 furnaces, and has filed almost 600 suits for the prosecution of chronic violstors. There are also 20 rooftop monitoring stations in the city that were estab- lishéd to trap pollutant particulates in the air, and another 35 specially equipped stations measure the dustfall and SO~ content. A three-year Federal grant of $357 000 has assisted Chicago in putting teeth into its enforcement of pollution control. It is hoped that, by 1968, all improper burning of combustible refuse will be banned. This would put the damper on about 30 000 Chicago apartment houses that foul the atmosphere with soot from coal-fired boilers. Like all major cities, Chicago has its smog-a noxious blend of automobile fumes, industrial pollutants, and soot. The present sootfall is about 43 tons per square mile per month. Recently, the four major steel producers in the Calumet region agreed to appropriate $50 million over she next seven years for pollution control equipment. It is believed, hopefully, that this equipment will cut the 60 000 tons of pollutants released annually to half that amount by next year. Chicago has no illusions about quick and easy solu- tions to its overall pollution problems, but at least the city is doing something about them. Houston-an Industrial complex of clsemicais and contaminants. Houston, Tex., is probably the fastest growing city in the United States. And concurrent with this phenomenal growth is the tremendous increase in the number of petrochemical plants, oil refineries, paper mills, and other heavy industries that gird the city's perimeter. Although pollutants from coal combustion are no problem here (natural gas is the most common fuel for both industrial and domestic use), the melange of chemical fumes released into the air is causing con- siderable apprehension. When the wind is from the south- east quadrant, the sickening fumes from "old smoky"- a sulfite process paper mill in suburban Pasadena-are very apparent in downtown Houston. Carbon monoxide and the nitrogen dioxides, caused primarily by the heavy automobile traffic, are found in the same ranges of concentration as those reported in other large cities. However, the general feeling in Houston is that the air pollution problem, at least, is under fairly good control. Private industry has shown an inclination to comply with local city ordinances, primarily because it knows that the PAGENO="0056" 656 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT city is quite willing to initiate court action to curb flagrant violations. Los Angeles and New York. Reams of copy have been written over the past 20 years about the lethal smogs, principally caused by the fantastic motor vehicle population and domestic trash burners, in Los Angeles; and any further emphasis on the situation in this West Coast metropolis would seem boring and repetitious to the reader. Suffice to say that, in 1960, California passed a law requiring all new motor vehicles sold in the state to be equipped by the owners with the crankcase and tailpipe devices previously described. State officials esti- mate that more than 4 million California vehicles are now equipped with these devices and they are removing about 200 000 gallons of unburned gasoline from the at- mosphere each day. The air pollution situation in New York, however, isso far out of~ontrol that this writer could be panicked into leaving the city after reviewing his own copy. New York channels most of its air contamination problems into the municipal Department of Air Pollution Control, whose commissioner, Arthur J. Benline, frankly confesaes that far too little money is appropriated either by the city or by the Federal Government to do an adequate job. During a recent television interview, Benline summed up the New York situation in two terse sentences: "The air over our city is helping our citizens to shuffle off this planet at a much higher rate than they would ordinarily go. Yet there has not been any overall demand from the public to clean up our dirty air." So, in the meanwhile, the city muddles through, and everyone hopes that, by some miracle, adequate corrective measures will be taken before any future prolonged temperature inversion produces the disaster that many health authorities fear. The air pollution situation throughout most urban areas in the United States closely parallels the samplings juat described in five major cities. A utility answers Its crItIcs At a recent hearing called by the Special Committee to Investigate Air Pollution (authorized by the New York City Council), the Consolidated Edison Company of Hew York replied to she Committee's accusation that Con Edison is one of the principal contributors to the air pollution problem, Otto W. Manz, Jr., the company's executive vice president, contended that the utility has done a conscientious job of providing adequate air pol- lution control equipment and devices in its city generating plants to minimize the emission of contaminants, In outlining future plans on the subject of air pollution con- trol, Manz listed the following activities, presently under way, that will either decentralize electric generation to remote areas or significantly reduce objectionable stack emissions in city-located generating stations: I. The construction of the Cornwall pumped-storage station, which will produce about 2000 MW of power, and will permit the retirement, or placement on cold standby, of about 750 MW of generating capacity that is presently being supplied by city steam-electric stations. 2. The possible substitution of more natural gas for coal as an alternative fuel for generating purposes. 3. The establishment of firm interconnections, by EHV transmission, with the CONVEX group of New England utilities and with the Pennsylvania-New Jersey- Maryland (PJM) complex. Manz believes that the ultimate answer to the problem of air pollution in metropolitan areas, insofar as power generation is concerned, is the use of nuclear energy. He cited the Indian Point nuclear generating station in suburban Westchester County that has been in dperation for almost three years and is a firm anti reliable producer of power for the Con Edison system. The Con Edison spokesman sounded a warning note, however, on the subject of who will eventually pick up the tab for air pollution control measures. To quote from Manz' 8-page prepared statement: "Our estimate is that on and after October 1, 1969, when the maximum sulfur content in these [coal) fuels will be 2.2 percent by weight, the additional annual coat of the fuels used by Con Edison and which will be passed on to the consumer could be as much as $20 million." Where do we go from here? As one public health official bluntly put it: "Perhaps we are worrying about the wrong menace. Our urban civilization stands a much better chance of being suf- focated by air pollution than being annihilated by atomic weapons." From numerous surveys, it is obvious that the sources of air pollution are numerous and complex. There is no single group or interest toward whom we can point an accusing finger as being the sole villain of the drama. Until heavy industry, the utilities, car manufacturers, and the general public become totally aware of the truth about air pollution and the consequences of irresponsibility, the alreadyintolerable situation will become impossible. Piecemeal solutions are not the answer, A city com- mittee cannot correct a situation-such as in Chicago and to some extent in New York-whose origins are inter- state. Total and effective remedial action must be under- taken by joint commissions that represent municipal, state, Federal, and private interests. Life depends upon the air we breathe. The author wishes to acknowledge she following picture credits: Fig. I, N.Y. Josrnai-Amerlcan; Figs. 2 through 8, U.s. Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution; Figs. 9 and tO, Mechanical Engineering magazine; Fig. 13, Research-Centres, Inc.; Fig. 18, Los Angeles Times. REFERENCES I. Dinman, B. D., Frankenberg, T. T., Gartrell, F. E., Gerber, A., Ireland, R. L, Jones, I. R., Perry, H., and Rippertos, L A., "Panel discussion of the clean air problem," presented at the American Power Conf., Chicago, Ill., Apr. 27-29, 1965. 2. Frankenberg, T. T., "Sulfur removal: for air pollution control," Mech. Eng., vol. 87, no. 8, pp. 36-41; Aug. 1965. "The problem of sulphur pollution has grown (in New York) until now the measured concentrations of sulphur dioxide are higher than in any other major city in which such measurements are taken." -V. G. MacKenzie, Assistant Surgeon General, Chief of the Air Pollution Division, U.S. Public Health Service PAGENO="0057" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 657 Solid waste management is an area in which innovative research and development activities are sorely needed. It is possible to put a rough price tag on the desirable level of research and development funding, if the practice of industry is used as a yardstick. Ordinarily industry invests something on the order of 5 percent of its gross income on research and development. These funds are used for basic re- search, the results of which may have no immediate practical appli- cability, and for efforts to improve quality of output and reduce costs. A segment of industry involved in an area of rapid technological change or growth may invest as much as 10 percent annually in re- search and development in order to secure a position in the forefront of technological advancement, and thus to maintain a competitive ad- vantage. The solid waste management field is somewhat analogous. Solid waste collection, processing, and disposal cost the Nation in excess of $3 billion each year. Since this is a field in which technological inno- vation is needed and will have to be paid for, it would seem reasonable to assume that an amount equal to 5 to 10 percent of the annual solid waste "business" should be invested in research and development-that is, somewhere between $150 and $300 million a year. In our view, taking into account the public health aspects of the solid waste problem as well as its economic, technological, and public policy ramifications, annual expenditures for solid waste research and development would best be allocated in the following way: Public health and environmental pollution control, 50 percent; Solid waste technology improvement, 35 percent; Public administration, systems analysis, cost-benefit analysis, 15 percent. A division of funds such as this is, of course, not without some areas of overlap. Technology improvement, for example, would have to take into consideration the public health implications of new, experi- mental techniques and procedures. By no means all of the cost of solid waste research and development on this scale should be borne by the Federal Government. State and local governments should be expected to contribute, but industry should assume responsibility for a major share of these costs, par- ticularly in the area of solid waste technology improvement. This assignment of funds should assure rapid progress toward the control of environmental health hazards associated with solid waste genera- tion and disposal. Question 3: During his testimony, Mr. MacKenzie indicated that there were numeLrous laws and regulatory codes which inhibited or appeared to inhibit progress or enforcement of pollution abatement action. Pleas~ furnish a list of such lcuws and regulatory codes and the extent to which such laws and codes interfere with pollution abate- ment and enforcement. Answer: Mr. MacKenzie's testimony on this point was given in re- sponse to a question on whether more rapid progress could be made by spending more money for air pollution abatement. This was Mr. MacKenzie's response: "I think one of the impediments to making more rapid progress than has been indicated in Mr. Cohen's statement re- lates to the existence and scope of activity of State and local govern- ment regulatory control activities. I would like to point out to the PAGENO="0058" 658 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGy FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT committee `that not more than half of the urban areas which are in need of regulatory control programs for air pollution control now have them, and of these the majority of them are operated at an inade- quate level to do the kind of job you are inferring might be looked for. "On the State government level, it was only about 14 years ago, in 1952, that the first State set up a State air pollution c~ontrol law and started operating a significant air pollution control programS In the intervening period, we now have about half the State's that have sig- nificant laws on the books. But only a handful of these `are operating programs that are at an effective level. So that I think what is lack- ing as related to this goal is not so much the technology as it is the development of the control programs on the State and local levels of government that would effectively see that the available technology is employed." The following provides additional details concerning the inadequacy of State and local governmental programs of `air pollution `control: For the most part, local `and State agencies are still not equipped to meet their present responsibilities for the prevention and control of air pollution, let alone the potentially greater responsibilities that may be thrust upon them `a's the potential for air pollution continues to grow. In many important respe'cts, the progress made during the past 21/9 years is not as impressive as raw statistics might indicate. To begin with, people in many parts of the country will not share fully in the benefits of the increase that has taken place in State and local spending. A major share of such spending is still concentrated in the State of California. Local agencies in California accounted for 38 percent of all spending for local air pollution programs in 1965. The Los Angeles County budget alone represented about 25 percent of `the national total for all local agencies and, combined `with the budgets of the next five largest local agencies, made up over half the national total. An'd at, the State level, nearly half of the increased spending has been `in California. This means, of course, that State and local governments elsewhere in the country are still not attacking their air pollution problem's with resources commensurate with the numbers of people th'ose problems affect. Though there are now 33 air pollution programs at the State le,vel, many of them are~scarcely more than nominal programs having neither the authority nor the resources needed t'o carry on effective control activities. In 1~ States, some degree of `abatement respon'sibility has been `assigned to State agencies, but in most instances `the abatement authority can be invoked only with respect to o'bvious nuisances or `in response to complaints. Only a half dozen State agencies engage in more `than nominal degree of abatement activity the great majority are not even serving those communities which are too small to operate their own local programs hut are nonetheless `affected by seriou's `air pollution problems, often from a single major source. There are many such communities in all parts of the country. For the most part, efforts at the local level are equally deficient, in- deed, more so when measured against the greater degree of activity that is generally expected of local governments. In the air pollution field, it has been traditional to take the position that local governments should bear the major responsibility for practical control action. In actual fact, however, tradition and practice have seldom coincided. PAGENO="0059" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 659 There has been some improvement in this situation in the past 2 years, but not nearly enough to take care of all instances of inadequate effort or total neglect of air pollution at the local level. Our most recent estimate indicates that only 58 percent of the urban population of the `United States is served by local air pollution pro- grams. Even where local programs exist, they frequently, indeed commonly, do not have adequate resources. On a per capita basis, annual spending for local programs has increased in recent years from a median figure of 10.8 to 15.2 cents. This increase is hardly adequate in the light of estimates that an effective local control program for a middle-sized city requires an expenditure of at least 40 cents per capita per year. In most communities, the actual increase has barely been sufficient to keep pace with the rising cost of operating an air pollution program. Only a handful of local agencies have adequate authority to deal with the complex modern problem of air pollution. These are agencies which have been given broad authority, either by local or State gov- ernments, to adopt rules and regulations for the control of all sources of air pollution. But many of these agencies have been slow to apply this authority to significant sources. And many others are still with- out adequate power to adopt and enforce control regulations applicable in any degree to important air pollution sources within their jurisdic- tion. As for regional activity, the improvement that has taken place in the past 2 years has barely touched the largest urban centers of the country. Only 5 of the 24 largest metropolitan areas are now served by a regional air pollution program. These 24 areas are the homes of some 69 million people-about one-half of the Nation's urban popula- tion-and, in general, tend to have the most serious air pollution prob- lems. Though air pollution in such metropolitan areas is inevitably a regional problem, the authority to deal with it is usually fragmented among many jurisdictions. A number of devices short of establish- ing regional programs are being used to achieve some degree of regional activity, but since most of them depend purely on voluntary cooperation by the participating governments, they are of limited effectiveness. In brief, there are still many serious deficiencies in State and local air pollution programs in nearly all parts of the country. To achieve a really significant degree of improvement will require a much greater effort in the months and years ahead than has been made at any time in the past. The inadequacy of the present pattern of control efforts means that a great deal of new local and State legislation will be needed; it means that more trained manpower will be needed, partic- ularly since the lack of enough trained personnel is already keeping many local and State programs from keeping up with their scheduled expansion; it means that local and State agencies must not only re- double their efforts to develop and carry on technically sound and sophisticated control programs but, at the same time, must begin deal- ine~ more effectively with the many obvious sources of air pollution which remain uncontrolled in virtually every city and town; and, not least important, it means that an increased investment of public funds will be needed to achieve and sustain the high level of control activity PAGENO="0060" 660 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT that is so clearly called for by our knowledge of the present and probable future dimensions of the air pollution problem. INDEX OF AIR POLLUTION CONThOL EFFORTS IN THE UNITED STAII~IS IPhe following lists roughly index the geographical occurrence of air pollution problems in the United States and the efforts being made to control these problems. In compiling the lists several criteria were used. First of all, it was generally assumed that cities with a popula- tion of 50,000 or more had an air pollution problem (or the potential for one) that could be controlled at the local level of government. Therefore, all cities in the United States with a population of 50,000 or more are listed with an indication of whether or not they are served by a minimum or better local air pollution control program. A mini- mum program is arbitrarily defined as one spending no less than $5,000 a year. Supplementing this list of cities is a tabulation of local government agencies currently receiving Federal matching grant sup- port, the amounts of these grants, and the amounts of current non- Federal budgets. Secondly, it was generally assumed that every State had smaller communities whose air pollution problems were serious enough to war- rant control programs, but whose resources were not adequate to sup- port the necessary effort. These communities, it was generally as- sumed, depend on State air pollution control programs. Therefore, all the States and the U.S. possessions are listed with an indication of whether or not they are served by a minimum or better State air pol- lution control program. A minimum program is again defined as one spending no less than $5,000 per year. Supplementing this list is a tabulation of State and possession agencies currently receiving Federal matching grant support, the amounts of these grants, and the amounts of current non-Federal budgets and budgets prior to receipt of Federal grants. Extent of local air pollution control effort$ in cztze$ with population of 60,000 or more Popula- tion rank City or place 1960 popu. lation in thousands Agency 1 New York, N.Y 7, 782 New York City. 2 Chicago, Ill 3, 550 Chicago. 3 Los Angeles, Calif 2, 479 Los Angeles County (A). 4 Philadelphia, Pa 2, 002 Philadelphia. 5 Detroit, Mich 1, 670 Detroit. 6 Baltimore, Md 939 Baltimore (B). 7 Houston, Tex 938 Harris County (A) (B). 8 Cleveland, Ohio 876 Cleveland. 9 Washington, D.C 764 District of Columbia. 10 St. Louis, Mo 750 St. Louis. 11 San Francisco, Calif 743 Bay Area Control District (A). 12 Milwaukee, Wis 741 Milwaukee County (A). 13 Boston, Mass 697 Boston area (A). 14 Dallas, Tex 679 Dallas County (A). 15 Pittsburgh, Pa 640 Allegheny County (A). 16 New Orleans, La 627 Local program prohibited. PAGENO="0061" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 661 None. San Diego County (A) (B). Seattle King County (A). Erie County (A). Cincinnati area (A) (B). None. Denver City and County (A). Fulton County (A). Minneapolis. Indianapolis. None. Columbus (B). Maricopa County (A). Newark (B). Jefferson County (A). Portland. Bay Area Control District (A). None. Los Angeles County (A). Jefferson County (A). Oklahoma City County (A). Rochester (B). Toledo. St. Paul. None. Omaha (B). None. Dade County (A). Akron-Barberton (A). None. * Do. Hillborough County (A)(B). Dayton (B). Tulsa City-County (A). None. Richmond (B). Syracuse (B). Pima County (A). None. Providence. Bay Area Control District (A). Mobile. Mecklinburg County (A). Albuquerque. None. Do. Sacramento County (A)(B). Yonkers. None. Worcester. None. Do. Pinellas County (A)(B). Gary. Grand Rapids (B). Springfield area (A). Nashville-Davidson County (A). None. Popula- tion rank Extent of local air pollution efforts in cities with populatiofl of 50,000 or ~more-Continued 1960 popu- City or place latlon in thousands Agency 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 San Antonio Tex San Diego, óalif Seattle, Wash Buffalo, N.Y Cincinnati, Ohio Memphis, Tenn Denver, Cob Atlanta, Ga Minneapolis, Minn Indianapolis, md Kansas City, Mo Columbus, Ohio Phoenix, Ariz Newark, N.J Louisville, Ky Portland,Oreg Oakland, Calif Fort Worth, Tex Long Beach, Cklif Birmingham, Ala Oklahoma City, Okla~ - - - Rochester, N.Y 587 573 557 532 502 497 493 487 482 476 475 471 439 405 390 372 367 356 344 341 324 318 39 Toledo, Ohio 40 St. Paul, Minn 41 Norfolk, Va 42 Omaha, Nebr 43 Honolulu, Hawaii 44 Miami, Fla 45 Akron, Ohio 46 El Paso, Tex 47 Jersey City, N.J 48 Tampa, Fla 49 Dayton, Ohio - 50 Tulsa, Okla 51 Wichita, Kans 52 Richmond, Va 53 Syracuse, N.Y 54 Tucson, Ariz 55 Des Moines, Iowa 56 Providence, R.I 57 San Jose, Calif 58 Mobile, Ala 59 Charlotte, N.C 60 Albuquerque, N. Mex-- 61 Jacksonville, Fla 62 Flint, Mich 63 Sacramento, Calif - 64 Yonkers, N.Y 65 Salt LakO City, Utah~ - -- 66 Worcester, Mass 67 Austin, Tex 68 Spokane, Wash 69 St. Petersburg, Fla 70 Gary, md 71 Grand Rapids, Mich 72 Springfield, Mass 73 Nashville, Tenn 74 Corpus Christi, Tex 318 313 305 301 294 291 290 276 276 275 262 262 255 220 216 213 209 207 204 203 202 201 201 197 192 190 189 187 187 181 181 178 177 174 171 168 PAGENO="0062" 662 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT 75- 76 77- 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85. 86 87 88~~ 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 9.8 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 Youngstown, Ohio Shreveport, La Arlington, Va Hartford, Conn Fort Wayne, Ind - - Bridgeport, Conn Baton Rouge, La New Haven, Conn Savannah, Ga Tacoma, Wash Jackson, Miss Paterson, N.J Evansville, md Erie, Pa Amarillo, Tex Montgomery, Ala Fresno, Calif South Bend, md Chattanooga, Tenn Albany, N.Y Lubbock, Tex Lincoln, Nebr Madison, Wis Rockford, Ill Kansas City, Kans Greensboro, N.C Topeka, Kans Glendale, Calif Beaumont, Tex Camden, N.J Columbus, Ga Pasadena, Calif Portsmouth, Va Trenton, N.J Newport News, Va Canton, Ohio Dearborn, Mich Knoxville, Tenn Hammond, Ind Scranton, Pa berkeley, Calif Winston-Salem, N.C Allentown, Pa Little Rock, Ark Lansing, Micih Cambridge, Mass Elizabeth, N.J~ Waterbury, Conn Duluth, Minn Anaheim, Calif Peoria, Ill New Bedford, Mass Niagara Falls, N.Y Wichita Falls, Tex Torrance, Calif Utica, N.Y Youngstown (B). None. Do. Do. Do. Bridgeport. None. New Haven. Chatham County (A). Tacoma (B). None. Do. Evansville. Erie (B). None. Do. Do. Do. Chattanooga. Albany County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Kansas City-Wyandotte County (A). Guilford County (A). None. Los Angeles County (A). None. Camden (B). None. Los Angeles County (A). None. ~?o. Do. Canton. Wayne County (A). None. Do. Do. Bay area (A). Winston-Salem (B). Lehigh Valley (A) (B). Local program prohibited. None. Boston area (A). Elizabeth (B). None. Do. Orange County (A) (B). Peoria (B). None. Niagara County (A). None. Los Angeles County (A). None. Extent of local air pollution efforts in cities with population of 80,000 or more-Continued Popula- 1 tion rank City or place 1960 popu- lation in thousands Agency 167 164 163 162 162 156 152 152 149 148 144 144 142 138 138 134 134 132 130 130 129 129 127 127 122 120 119 119 119 117 117 116 115 114 113 114 112 112 112 111 111 111 108 108 108 108 108 107 107 104 103 102 102 102 101 100 PAGENO="0063" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 663 Popula- tion rank City or place 131 Santa Ana, Calif 132 Fall River, Mass 133 Saginaw, Mich 134 Reading, Pa 135 East Los Angeles, CaliL - 136 Waco, Tex 137 Columbia, S.C 138 Roanoke, Va 139 Springfield, Mo 140 Wilmington, Del 141 Somerville, Mass 142 Lynn, Mass 143 Raleigh, N.C 144 Stamford, Conn 145 Newton, Mass 146 Lowell, Mass 147 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 148 San Bernardino, CaliL~- - 149 Pueblo, Cob 150 Alexandria, Va 151 Abilene, Tex 152 Burbank, Calif 153 Hampton, Va 154 Warren, Mich 155 Sioux City, Iowa 156 Racine, Wis 157 Davenport, Iowa 158 Norwalk, Calif 159 Manchester, N.H 160 Orlando, Fla 161 Quincy, Mass 162 Stockton, Calif 163 Charleston, W. Va 164 Riverside, Calif 165 Garden Grove, Calif 166 Tonawanda, N.Y 167 Fort Lauderdale, Fla 168 Huntington, W. Va 169 Springfield, Ill 170 Santa Monica, Calif 171 Parma, Ohio~. 172 Springfield, Ohio 173.~~ - - Downey, Calif 174 Dundalk, Md 175 Pontiac, Mich 176 New Britain, Conn 177 Kalamazoo, Mich 178 Clifton, N.J 179 East St. Louis, Ill 180 Schenectady N.Y 181 Pawtucket, kI 182 Royal Oak, Mich 183 Odessa, Tex 184 Harrisburg, Pa 185 St. Joseph, Mo 186 Evanston, Ill 187 Durham, N.C 188 Decatur, Ill Agency Orange County (A)(B). None. Do. Do. Los Angeles County (A). None. Columbia (B). Roanoke. Greene County (A). None. Boston area (A). Do. None. Do. Boston area (A). None. Cedar Rapids. San Bernardino County (A). None. Do. Do. Los Angeles County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Los Angeles County (A). None. Do. Boston area (A). None. Do. Riverside County (A)(B). Orange County (A)(B). Erie County (A). None. Do. Do. Los Angeles County (A). None. Do. Los Angeles County (A). Baltimore County (A) (B). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Schenectady. None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Durham County (A). None. Extent of local air pollution efforts in cities with population of 50,000 or more.-Continued 1960 popu~ lation in thousands 100 100 98 98 98 98 97 97 96 96 95 94 94 93 92 92 92 92 91 91 90 90 89 89 89 89 89 89 88 88 87 86 86 84 84 84 84 84 83 83 83 83 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 81 81 80 80 80 79 78 78 PAGENO="0064" 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 197 198 ~ 200 - * - 201 202 203 204 20&~ -- 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234~. - - 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 East Orange, N.J New Rochelle, ~ St. Claire, Mich Mount Vernon, N.Y Binghamton, N.Y Bethlehem, Pa Bayonne, N.J Brockton, Mass Hayward, CaliL. - - - - - Portland, Maine Terre Haute, md Huntsville, Ala Hamilton, Ohio Richmond, Calif Compton, Calif Waterloo, Iowa Redford Heights, Mich~. Lawrence, Mass Augusta, Ga Ogden, Utah Colorado Springs, Colo~. - San Mateo, Calif Macon, Ga Altoona, Pa Cicero, Ill Lorain, Ohio Muncie, md Warwick, R.I West Allis, Wis Kenosha, Wis Norwalk, Conn Troy, N.Y Ann Arbor, Mich Galveston, Tex Pomona, Calif Lakewood, Calif Hialeah, Fla Joliet, Ill Cranston, RI Livonia, Mich Port Arthur, Tex Silver Spring, Md Greenville, S.C Lakewood, Ohio San Leandro, Calif Charleston, S.C Sioux Falls, S.Dak Levittown, N.Y Hamilton Township, N.J Metairie, La Medford, Mass Las Vegas, Nev Aurora, Ill Chester, Pa Wilkes-Barre, Pa Lake Charles, La East Orange. New Rochelle. None. Mount Vernon. Broome County (A). None. Do. Do. Bay area (A). None. Terre Haute (B). Huntsville. None. Bay area (A). Los Angeles County (A). None. Wayne County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Bay area (A). Macon-Bibb County (A). None. Do. Lorain. None. Do. Milwaukee County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Los Angeles County (A). Do. Dade County (A). Will County (A)(B). None. Wayne County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Bay area (A). None. Do. Nassau County (A). None. Do. Boston area (A). Clark County (A) (B). None. Do. Do. Do. 664 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Ea~tent of local air pollution effort8 in citie$ with population of 50,000 or more-Continued Popula- tion rank City or place 1960 popu- lation in thousands Agency 77 77 77 76 76 75 74 73 73 73 73 72 72 72 72 72 71 71 71 70 70 70 70 69 69 69 69 69 68 68 68 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 66 65 65 65 65 65 64 64 64 64 63 PAGENO="0065" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 665 Agency Los Angeles County (A). None. Dade County (A). None. Green Bay (B). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Springfield area (A). Bay area (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Buneombe County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Bay area (A). None. Do. Harris County (A)(B). None. Do. Do. Do. Boston area (A). East Chicago. Milwaukee County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Palm Beach County (A). Orange County (A) (B). None. Do. Do. Boston area (A). None. Do. Los Angeles County (A). None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Extent o' local air pollution control efforts in cities with population of 50,000 or more-Continued Popula- tion rank City or place 1960 popu- lation in thousands 245 Inglewood, Calif 63 246 Tuscaloosa, Ala - 63 247 Miami Beach, Fla 63 248 Euclid, Ohio 63 249 Green Bay, Wis 63 250 Lexington, Ky 63 251 Midland, Tex 63 252 West Hartford, Conn_ - - - 62 253 Independence, Mo 62 254 High Point, N.C 62 255 Cleveland Heights, Ohio~~ 62 256 Lawton, Okla 62 257 Chicopee, Mass 62 258 Alameda, Calif 61 259 Oak Park, Ill 61 260 Lancaster, Pa.. - 61 261 Vallejo, Calif 61 262 Laredo, Tex 61 263 Covin~ton, Ky 60 264 Asheville, N.C 60 265 Warren, Ohio 60 266 Atlantic City, N.J 60 267 Irvington, N.J 59 268 Skokie, Ill 59 269 Santa Clara, Calif 59 270 San Angelo, Tex 59 271 Santa Barbara, Calif 59 272 Pasadena, Tex 59 273 Gadsden, Ala 58 274 North Little Rock, Ark_ - 58 275 Levittown, Pa.. - 58 276 Pittsfield, Mass 58 277 Malden, Mass 58 278 East Chicago, md 58 279 Wauwatosa, Wis 57 280 Bakersfield, Calif 57 281 Pensacola, Fla 57 282 Dubuque, Iowa 57 283 Bethesda, Md 57 284 West Palm Beach, Fla~ -- 56 285 Fullerton, Calif 56 286 Albany, Ga 56 287 Waukegan, Ill 56 288 Council Bluffs, Iowa 56 289 Waltham, Mass 55 290 Great Falls, Mont 55 291 Irondequoit, N.Y 55 292 Alhambra, Calif 55 293 Lynchburg, Va 55 294 Wheaton, Mo 55 295 York, Pa 55 296 Kettering, Ohio 54 297 Berwyn, Ill 54 68-240 O-0&----vol. II-~5 PAGENO="0066" 666 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Extent of local air pollution control efforte in citiec with population of 50,000 or more-Continued City or place 1960 popu- lation in thousands Agency Popula- tion rank 298 299~~ 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 ~ 311 312 313 814 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327..~. 328 329 330 Brookline, Mass Passaic, N.J Johnstown, Pa Lincoln Park, Mich South Gate, Calif Greenwich, Conn Bay City, Mich Wheeling, W. Va Fort Smith, Ark Sunnyvale, Calif Billings, Mont Holyoke, Mass Cheektowaga, N.Y Palo Alto, Calif Monroe, La Union City, N.J Bloomfield, N.J Rock Island, Ill Meriden, Conn Rome, N.Y Penn Hills, Pa Union, N.J Reno, Nev University City, Mo Tyler, Tex Lima, Ohio Eugene, Oreg Jackson, Mich West Covina, Calif Bloomington, Minn~~ White Plains, N.Y Hicksville, N.Y Roseville, Mich 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 53 53 53 53 53 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 50 50 50 50 Boston area (A). None. Do. Wayne County (A). Los Angeles (A). None. Do. Wheeling (B). None. Bay area (A). None. Do. Erie County (A). Bay area (A). Local program prohibited. None. Do. Do. Do. Do. Allegheny County (A). None. Reno -Sparks-Washoe County (A). St. Louis County (A). None. Do. Eugene-Springfield (A)(B). None. Los Angeles County (A). None. Westchester County (A). Nassau County (A). None. N0PE.-(A), agency covers more than the city; (B), no Federal funds granted to agency for control pro- gram. PAGENO="0067" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 667 Extent of State air pollution control efforts based on annual budgets of $5,000 or more (In thousands of dollars] Funds State Non-Federal Federal 1. Alabama 25 50 2. Alaska *0 0 3. Arizona *0 0 4. Arkansas 19 38 5. California 2,313 0 6. Colorado 20 7. Connecticut 63 89 8. Delaware *19 0 9. District of Columbia 45 33 10. Florida *167 0 11. Georgia 46 12. Hawaii 50 24 13. Idaho *10 0 14. Illinois 15. Indiana 38 42 16. Iowa *0 0 17. Kansas *0 0 18. Kentucky 120 197 19. Louisiana 36 48 20. Maine *0 0 21. Maryland *0 0 22. Massachusetts *40 0 23. Michigan 62 55 24. Minnesota 10 25. Mississippi *0 0 26.Missouri 23 46 27. Montana 22 10 28. Nebraska *0 0 29. Nevada *0 0 30. New Hampshire 6 13 31. New Jersey 409 250 32. New Mexico 9 17 33. New York 394 120 34. North Carolina *0 0 35. North Dakota 10 36. Ohio *0 0 37. Oklahoma 6 12 38. Oregon 126 54 39. Pennsylvania 251 84 40. Rhode Island (State law passed June 1966) *0 0 41. South Carolina 23 45 42. South Dakota *0 0 43. Tennessee 11 22 44.. Texas 48 58 45. Utah *0 0 46..Vermont *0 0 47. Virginia *0 0 48. Washington *115 0 49. West Virginia 106 148 50. Wisconsin *0 0 51. Wyoming *0 0 52.Guam *0 0 53. Puerto Rico 59 117 54. Samoa *0 0 55. Virgin Islands *0 0 NoTE-Non-Federal funds when asterisked are reported by State as of November 1965. Otherwise all figures are current. PAGENO="0068" Local and regional air pollution control agencies receiving Federal program grant support Alabama: Jefferson County Huntsville Mobile Arizona: Maricopa County Pima County California: Los Angeles County San Bernardino County Bay Area APCD Colorado: Denver City and County Tn-County (Aurora) Connecticut: Bridgeport Middletown Fairfield Stratford Florida: Dade County Palm Beach County Georgia: Fulton County Macon-Bibb Counties Chatham County Illinois: Chicago Cook County' Grantee Type' of proj- ect Popula- tion (in thou- sands) Non-Federal Current budget Federal D E D E D I I I I E E D D D I E D D D I I 635 72 314 664 266 6, 039 504 3, 291 494 234 157 33 46 45 935 228 69 141 188 3, 550 1, 579 $45, 387. 91 5, 000. 00 7, 357. 00 71, 768. 00 8, 500. 00 3, 475, 763. 00 224, 504. 00 1, 034, 779. 00 70, 323. 00 15, 000. 00 11, 854. 45 7, 299. 00 11, 240. 00 10, 752. 00 36, 637. 00 13, 768. 00 7, 500. 00 5, 159. 95 6, 114. 00 769, 694. 00 103, 434. 00 $120, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 22, 071. 00 58, 657. 00 25, 000. 00 98, 083. 00 43, 800. 00 91, 812. 00 104, 286. 00 45, 000. 00 22, 208. 90 14, 356. 00 21, 600. 00 20, 624. 00 52, 220. 00 41, 048. 00 18, 000. 00 15, 479. 85 12, 983. 00 393, 000. 00 50, 084. 00 Previous year total Pregrant expendi- tures ~. ~ ~ Total -------- - ~. $165, 387. 91 15, 000. 00 29 428. 00 $162, 204. 41 15, 000. 00 (~ ~ ~ `Ti 130, 425. 00 33, 500. 00 29 428. 00 151, 984. 00 33, 322. 00 $7, 267. 14 LTj ~ 3, 573, 846. 00 268, 304. 00 1, 126, 591. 00 3, 509, 604. 00 264, 777. 00 1, 048, 107. 00 3, 164, 476. 43 162, 509. 00 0 ~ 0 ~ 174, 609. 00 150, 984. 00 `710, 000. 00 18, 180. 00 60, 000. 00 34, 063. 35 21,655.00 32,840.00 31, 376. 00 47,886.00 34, 063. 35 19,020.00 23,067.00 21, 922. 00 750. 00 0 t~ ~ ~ 88, 857. 00 54, 816. 00 25, 500. 00 20, 639. 80 19, 097. 00 1, 162, 694. 00 104, 190. 00 52, 446. 00 24, 000. 00 21, 127. 80 1,. 162, 694. 00 19, 230. 00 590, 972. 00 ~. w ~ ~ LTi `~ PAGENO="0069" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 669 C C 00 C I I C I I C C C C C I I C C C ~ C I C I C I C 00 C C I C I I~ It.~ I ~ 0 I IC C~ - t~. I I I C ~ C I I It~ l~4 ~ ~I~4 I I1~- I L L~C~' oo~i 00 I I C t~.CC CC~C CC CC C CCC ~CCCCC C~C IC C 00CC CCCW C00 C C 00CCCCC~ L~ I~ ~ 00;~ ~ ~ ~ 0000 C C 00 C C 00 C 00 C 00 - ~ t.. CO ~ 00 00 I ~ ~ I 0000 C ~ C C 00 C ~ C~1 0<1 C 0000 C<1 C 00 00~ I)i~ o~ I ~ C"t~ rxr t kL~ 00 © 0<1 - 00 I 00 t~. ~ 0<100 C<1 t~- ~ 00 - - - - ~4 - I - - 0<1 - - - CCCCC CC ~-CC CC~C CC CC C CCC ~CCC CCCCC CC 0<1 CC~C ~00 C CCC COCC©C©C ~ ©L~ C~L~ ~C~0000 0~t~ ~0I~ ~.4 000000 ~ C C P- - t~. C 00 ~ C ~ 0000 t~. C kf~ C C ~ ~-4 t'. C C CLC~ ~C ~C t'.C 00L~ C ~L~kL~ ~ C~61f~0~ oc~ ~w ~ ~C CO~-~ C<1C~00 00~ Ct'- ~ ~ C 00 - 0<1 - 00 - - - cq C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C LC~ C C C C 0<100 00 CC©CC CC CCC CCC© ~C CC C P-CC C000001©C0 C L~ P- ~ C C C C C C k~ C 0100 00 C ct5 C 000000 ~ C 00 ~4 - C C C C C C 00 C 0000 00 C C ~ - - C 00 C C 00 ~ C L~ CO 00 P- - k~ ~ C C C C C 00 P- P.00 C P. 01 ~ CCI ~ 01000<1 00 -~-~-r~-©- ~or~-~ ~i©~ ©~ -.` t'o~ ~ - ~ - CI~ 00 CI 010<100 00 - ~O 00 CI ~ 00 CI P. - C - - - CCCCC CC CC CC~C CC CC C LOCC C~1~-~O~P- CC©CC CC 01CC CCCIC COO C C 01CC 00CC~P-©c~ e~ ~ ~ C 010000 C C P. P. C C ~C 01 C C ~ 00 00 LO C ~ C C P. ~ C~C~-I01 CtO C~CC CICCCI C COP. P. CLOCI LOC~C~C ~t~P.LO 00C C~CO LO" 01W 0<1 ~ - LO `-~CO - C - LO 00 0001 P.00 - - 00 00 CI - - 000001 ~ 01 LO - P-Cl LO C ~ C 0000 ~ C o~ LO P. * t'~ LO 0001CC CI LO P. ~ P. C 00'-~ 00~ LO C ~l P. -~00 C LO CI COP. C P. CC - CC C C 00 -~ -H~C ~ ~-~C CC C0~ P.P. - CI CCI'-4 00 - - ~- ~ -~-~-~ ~ PAGENO="0070" 670 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT I I I I I I I 100 I 00 ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~) ~ ~oo~o~© ~ ~ ~ ~ c~~c~zie~i ~ C~ 00 C~ 00 ~ - i t~. ~4 - `~ I ~ 01 ~ C~ t~ 00000100 ~ t~. I i e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~j4,-4 01~-400,-4p~.~1 I 0100~0t. ~ ~ 01 ~-4 01 I~-~ I - I --- -- .__~ ©~ ~ ~0100 01 01 L~ 01 ~ ~4 C~ ~ kt~ C~ 00 t~. C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 00 01 00 -~ ~ 01 0100 ~ t~ LC~ .00 00 01 - ~-- -------~-----~-- - "~--- --- - ---- -------------~- ~.- ~---- ~-------- ---~------ - ©~ ~ ~i400-401©t~ ~©©©~ ~ ~~0100 ~ ~t'~J10001t~ 00 -01~ t~'00C~ 00L~©~1I~ 0100C~~~ ~4~00 ~-4kC~ C~N~00~ co~j'~c~ ~ ~L~01' ~ft 0000 ~ 00 4C~010000 -401t. `-4 - ~ b~ ~ ~ 4~ ~ h ~ 0 - ~ 0 E~ - - C~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~__-__~__~_._ ~ ~ --~ ---~ -~ ~ ~ ©O©~ LL~J~ . ~ CO -~t'-~-~~ COLOLO©C1 0100'~ t~- LO CO 0100 - ~ 00 ~ 00 0000 C~ t~- t~- ~ LO ~4 ~ 0101 ~0 CO ~ 0000~ ~ ~ ~~-41'~. 0000tO ~ `-~ COCO~t4~-4 ~j4 Cl Cl - ,~- -~ 1 :1 I I CO C~ ~ 0101 ~ 00 Cl ~ t~. Cl © 0001 t~- ,~ 0000 t~ 01 t'- 01~-4 1-401 0 I I ~ I~ I I I~ i+~ I~ HH: I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0~ I I I II 1 I I I I +~O I H :~ H C~4 CO PAGENO="0071" *0 00 ~0 ~ 0 ~ ~ 1III~! ~ E EL~ ~ 0 0 ~ 0 U) ,~ oE-~~ r ~ I I I I I H I~ ;~I ~ ` to ~ ,0 0I0+~ l~ ,Q~ ~ IQ 2~ :~ ~Oç~ ~ ~ 0 _~~.U)Q~,)c~c0 ~b~ri2 0 ~ ;~! ~an 0 ~O0 )~)C~~U) ~ ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 671 I C C C C t'~ C~ I0Z~00L tC~C I 00 C 00 t~. 00 I t'. LC~ 00 CCCCCC ~ CC CCC ~ ci3c ~ CC CWU~ ~ 0000~ ~.0C C00~-~ IC~ C C CCCCC CCCCCC ~ C C C I~ 00 C C C C kr3~ ~ 00 t~ C~ ~ C t~ C 00 ~C~ocr ~ 0000 C 0'~ 0000 C CCCCC CCCCCC ~ 00 C C~ ~ C C C LC~ ~ P 00 t-~ C C COO ~ kf~ ~ ~ ~ 00 00 C 00 © C ~ C~ CO CCCCO~1 CCC~C© CC©L000 ©©©COC© 00 CC~CO ~OCOC00 ~ 0<10000 k~ 0<1 t~. t~- t~ CO C C 0<1 t~. t'- t'- 00 C C ~ 0<1C~C LC~00~,-~ 00 ~ t-. - C CO CCC0000 ©CCCC© 00 CCCCC ©©CCCC © ~ ~ ~ C t. ~- L)~ 00 1-. C C 00 010 t~- *!~tI ~~10C 00CCt~-t0<1 t~- C CO 0<1 - COO C 010<1 - C C CO CO ~ CC ~- k10 C k)0 ©C<1C~ COCLLOC0000 C ©CC<1 ~-~C CC 010 0 PAGENO="0072" State air pollution control agencies receiving Federal program grant support Grantee Type of proj- ect Popula- tion (in mil- lions) Current budget Non-Federal Previous year total Total Alabama Arkansas Colorado Connecticut District of Columbia Georgia Hawaii Illinois Indiana Kentucky Louisiana Michigan - Minnesota Missouri Montana New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Dakota Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico South Carolina Tennessee Texas West Virginia D E E D I D I I I E E E D E D D I D I D D I I D E D E I 3.2 1.7 1.8 2. 5 .8 3_ 9 10. 0 4. 6 3. 0 3. 2 7. 8 3.4 4.3 .6 .6 6.0 .9 16. 7 .6 2. 3 1.8 11.3 2.3 24 3.5 9.5 1.8 $25, 000.00 19, 340. 00 55, 780.36 62, 550. 00 44, 585. 00 38, 515. 00 50, 218. 00 77, 050. 00 38, 230. 00 119, 838. 00 35, 882. 81 62, 324. 00 5,000.00 22, 935. 00 22, 098. 00 6, 340. 00 409, 037. 00 8,679.00 393, 953. 00 5, 000. 00 6, 000. 00 126, 301. 00 250, 980. 00 58, 580. 00 22, 710. 50 10, 762. 00 47, 816. 77 106, 350. 00 Federal $50, 000. 00 38, 680. 00 20, 060. 00 89, 066. 00 33, 262. 00 46, 452. 00 24, 002.00 79, 416. 00 41, 580. 00 196, 828. 00 48, 448. 20 54, 648. 00 10, 000. 00 45,865. 00 10, 058. 00 12, 680. 00 250, 000. 00 17, 357. 00 120, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 12, 000. 00 53, 557. 00 84, 475. 00 117, 156. 00 45, 421. 00 21, 523. 00 57, 549. 45 147, 640. 00 $75, 000. 00 58, 020. 00 75, 840. 36 151, 616. 00 77, 847. 00 84, 967. 00 74, 220. 00 156, 466. 00 79,810.00 316, 666.00 84, 331. 01 116, 972.00 15,000.00 68, 800.00 32, 156.00 19, 020.00 659, 037.00 26, 036.00 513, 953.00 15, 000.00 18, 000.00 179, 858.00 335, 455.00 175, 736.00 68, 131. 50 32, 285. 00 105, 366. 22 253, 990.00 $15,000.00 58, 020.00 147, 787. 00 78, 097. 06 74, 028. 00 124, 270. 00 74, 590. 00 64, 272. 00 61, 831. 01 24, 726. 00 522, 754. 00 21, 036. 00 502, 539. 50 15, 000.00 12, 000. 00 247, 390. 00 171,529.00 25, 391. 00 43, 761. 24 150, 844. 00 Pregrant expendi- tures $45, 619. 70 42, 083. 00 27, 954. 00 14, 274. 00 38, 217. 00 5, 146. 00 16, 258. 00 6, 500.00 35, 000. 00 9, 616. 00 120, 472. 00 333,953.00 86, 892. 00 162, 187. 00 16, 256. 16 32, 530.00 Total 111.1 2, 131,855.44 1,737,723.65 3,869,579.09 2,434,865.81 992, 957.86 EXPLANATORY N0TE.-This table shows the budgets of State air pollution control next-to-last column shows the preceding year's expenditures, which m most mstances agencies as of JuIy 1966. Federal funds are grants made from the appropriation for fiscal also includes Federal funds. The last column shows expenditures for the most recent year 1965. The column headed "Type of project" shows the purpose for which Federal year prior to receipt of Federal program grants. Such grants were first authorized by the grant funds were provided: D denotes a grant for the development of a new air pollution Clean Air Act, adopted December 1963, and were first made froth control program, E denotes a grant for the establishment of a ro am air PAGENO="0073" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 673 Question 4: HEW witnesses referred to criteria used in the awards of grants and contracts for pollution abatement research. Please furnish all details on the criteria used for such awards and indicate how such criteria are used to promote technological breakthroughs on new innovations in pollution abatement techniques. Answer: In the area of air pollution research grants, the Division of Air Pollution of the Public Health Service uses the review mecha- nism provided by the Division of Research Grants of the National Institutes of Health for initial review of research grant applications. All research grant applications sent to the Public Health Service are first reviewed by the Referral Office, Division of Research Grants, Na- tional Institutes of Health, where they are assigned to the appropriate Division or Institute. The applications are also assigned to a study section for technical review and recommendation to the National Ad- visory Environmental Health Committee (NAEHC) for a secondary review. The study sections and the NAEHC are composed principally of outstanding authorities in the major fields of research. These special consultants are selected on a nationwide basis. They have accepted re- sponsibility for (a) providing technical advice on applications, and (b) surveying the status of, and needs for, research in their fields. The majority of the air pollution grant applications are reviewed by the Environmental Sciences and Engineering B Study Section, which has 13 members. These are chemists, biochemists, botanists, a~rono- mists, chemical and mechanical engineers, and industrial hygienists who have broad scientific experience and insight, and in addition are actively engaged in air pollution research and are recognized experts in their respective fields. Some air pollution applications are reviewed by such study sections as allergy and immunology, biophysics and bio- physical chemistry, bacteriology and mycology, behavioral sciences, cell biology, cardiovascular diseases control, hematology, medicinal chemistry, pathology, radiation, and toxicology. For review of a research grant application for which no regular study section has been established, an ad hoc group is formed of ex- perts in the field of the application. Due to the increasing number of air pollution-oriented applications in the social sciences, this form of initial review is becoming of increasing importance to the air pollution research grant program. A prime purpose of the research grants is to stimulate advances in scientific knowledge of the nature and control of air pollution. The very nature of the grants program, in which the initiative must come in large measure from nongovernmental scientists, provides an oppor- tunity for wide participation in air pollution research. Thus, the pro- gram offers some degree of assurance that promising new ideas and new approaches to air pollution control will be submitted for ap-- praisal and, if deemed worthwhile, financial support. The criteria used in judging air pollution research grant applications are suffi- ciently flexible to permit awarding of grants to projects which may open up new areas of technical knowledge. In addition, the Division of Air Pollution staff members responsible for administering the re- search grants program maintain close liaison with the scientific com- munity and encourage scientists with promising ideas to seek Federal grant support. PAGENO="0074" 674 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT One of the ways in which the research grants program seeks to stimulate advances in the air pollution field is by supporting multi- disciplinary conferences at which experts with experience in comple- mentary areas can give intensive consideration to a single problem. An example was the Conference on Atmospheric Emissions from Sul- fate Pulping (Kraft process), held April 25-28, 1966, at Sanibel Island, Fla. This meeting was supported in part by a rese.arch grant from the Division of Air Pollution. It was an international meeting, with representation from Canada, Finland, Italy, Mexico, `Sweden, and the United States. Participants included scientists from Government, industry, and universities. Among the purposes of the meeting was to document the present status of coi~trol technology in the pulping industry and to identify needs for new technology and additional research. An important segment of the research and development activities of the Division of Air Pollution is supported by contracts with com- mercial and industrial companies and nonprofit institutions and by project agreements with other Federal agencies. Work perfom~ed under contract is essentially an extension of in-house research activ- ities; that is, the basic purpose of awarding contracts for research and development is to take advantage of the special technical capa- bilities available in industry and elsewhere in Government. The Division of Air Pollution uses the contract mechanism as one of its prime tools for promoting technological advance in the air pollution field. As the One Federal agency with broad responsibility and experience in dealing with all aspects of the air pollution problem, the Division of Air Pollution is uniquely capable of identifying needs for new technical knowledge and making judgments as to the proper timing of projects which will help meet such needs. This approach enables the Division to see that research and development projects deemed essential to the national control effort are not neglected for lack of incentive; thus, the use of contracts complements the grants mechanism, in which the initiative must come in large measure from outside the Federal Government. In short, the most important of the criteria for awarding contracts are basic considerations of whether the work to be performed will pro- vide knowledge needed in the pursuit of better control of air pollution and whether the work can most effectively and efficiently be performed outside the Division of Air Pollution. Other criteria are employed, as necessary, to assign priorities to projects for which contracts have been suggested and to select the most qualified contractors for partic- ular projects. The review procedure for contract proposals from non-Federal sources includes the following steps: (1) Evaluation by technical staff of the Division of Air Pollution and assignment of priority among projects considered worthy of support; (2) review in the Office of the Chief, Division of Air Pollution, particularly from the standpoint of program integration; (3) if appropriate and desirable, evaluation by non-Federal consultants; (4) final assignment of priority. Awards are made, within the extent of available funds, in order of priority. Two current projects, in which research by industry is being sup- ported by contracts from the Division of Air Pollution, illustrate the way in which this mechanism is being used to promote technological PAGENO="0075" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 675 innovations. In both instances, the projects developed from perceptive observations by scientists originally engaged in work in fields other than air pollution. In the case of work being done by the Sperry- Rand Corp., the observation that variations in the temperature of oxygen interfered with the use of a specific microwave band in com- munications has led to the development of a promising way of investi- gating and measuring such meteorological phenomena as tempera- ture inversions and air stagnations, both of which may lead to build- ups of pollution in the airS Use of the microwave probe technique could eliminate the need to employ aircraft to investigate these phenomena. In the case of work being done by the Dalmo-Victor Corp., research in another area led to the development of a promising new means of employing infrared beams to measure concentrations of sulfur oxides in stack gases. An infrared probe, capable of being used from the ground and at some distance from the pollution source, would greatly simplify stack-gas sampling. Criteria for the planning and conduct of the intramural and extra- mural research program of the Office of Solid Wastes are based on the purposes stated in section 202(b) (1) of the Solid Waste Disposal Act (Public Law 89-272). The statement is as follows: "The pur- poses of this Act are (1) to initiate and accelerate a national research and development program for new and improved methods of proper and economic solid waste disposal, including studies directed toward the conservation of natural resources by reducing the amount of waste and unsalvageable materials and by recovery and utilization of poten- tial resources in solid wastes." The differences between research grants and contracts are significant and important. The grant mechanism, which by policy precludes sup- port to profitmaking organizations, provides support to projects devel- oped by non-Governmental investigators and are reviewed by an out- side panel of experts for evaluation. The immediate criteria applied by the study section are (1) The merit of the proposed project; (2) the qualifications of the investigators; (3) the pertinence to the programs of OSW; and (4) likelihood of valid scientific results. Research grants are nondirected in nature, in that the concept is developed by the in- vestigator and supported by the program only if it is considered scien- tifically meritorious and pertinent to the program of OSW. The contract program, however, is considered a direct extension of the in-house research program, and proposals, necessarily, are reviewed in a manner different from that for grant proposals. Since the con- tract operation is an extension of the in-house program, the decision to contract requires that we develop the project protocol and then seek appropriate sources for the conduct of the work. Unsolicited con- tract proposals which are submitted must fall within the program priority areas to be formally considered. In execution, a contract effort differs from a grant supported effort by virtue of the extensive program participation. Under a contract, the program is in effect buying the time and talent of an investigator and satisfactory per- formance is achieved through careful contract monitoring. The type of research which receives support will to a large extent affect the type of innovation which can be expected. Moreover, the direction of the research effort toward the achievement of defined re- search goals should encourage technological innovation. While it is PAGENO="0076" 676 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT possible to encourage research, it is difficult to predict how scientific or technological breakthroughs are secured. Breakthroughs may only be apparent after many research attempts, both successful and unsuc- cessful, have been made. The criteria for review of demonstration, study and investigation, and planning grants are found in the printed documents titled "Solid Waste Disposal Demonstration or Study and Investigation Project Grants; Terms and Conditions," and "Solid Waste Disposal Planning Grants; Terms and Conditions." PAGENO="0077" SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL PLANNING GRANTS TERMS AND CONDITIONS DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE OFFICE OF SOLID WASTES WASHiNGTON D.C. 20201 MARCH 196t 677 PAGENO="0078" 678 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT TERMS AND CONDITIONS GOVERNING SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL PLANNING GRANTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. Purpose of Planning Grants II. Eligible Applicants 1 III. Extent of Federal Financial Assistance IV. Applicant Financial Participation Requirements 2 V. Period of Support 2 VI. Program Direction 2 Vu. Conditions of Planning Grant 2 VIII. Use of Funds 3 IX~ Limitations on Use of Funds 3 X. How to Apply 3 XI. Review Procedure and Notification 4 XII. Payment Procedure 4 XIII. Rebudgeting of Funds 4 XIV. Planning Project Revisions 5 XV. Accountability and Audit 5 XVI. Expenditure and Program Reports 5 XVII. Termination of Grant and Repayment of Grant Funds . . . 6 XVIII. Continuation and Renewal Applications 6 XIX. Publication and Copyright 6 XX. Patent Policy 7 XXI. Compliance with Civil Rights Act of 1964 7 XXII. Further Information or Assistance 7 Public Health Service Regional Offices 8 DISCRIMINATION PROHIBITED - Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." Therefore, the grant and award programs of the Public Health Service, like every program or activity receiving ~ ::~:::: ~ Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, must be op. PAGENO="0079" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 679 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE OFFICE OF SOLID WASTES TERMS AND CONDITIONS GOVERNING SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL PLANNING GRANTS* I. Purpose of Planning Grants This document sets forth the terms, conditions, and procedures governing the Solid-Waste Disposal Planning Grant Program administered by the Office of Solid Wastes, Public Health Service. The program is authorized by Section 206, Title II, Public Law 89-272, Solid-Waste Disposal Act, and the regulations pursuant thereto (42 CFR, Part 59). It provides for Federal grants to assist State and interstate agencies in making surveys of solid-waste disposal practices and prob- lems, and in developing plans for new and improved methods of proper and economic solid-waste disposal within the jurisdictional areas of such State or interstate agencies (hereinafter referred to as "solid-waste disposal planning grants"). "Solid-waste" means garbage, refuse, and other discarded solid materials, including solid~waste material resulting from industrial, commercial, and agri- cultural operations, and from community activities. Excluded are solids or dis- solved material in domestic sewage or other significant pollutants in water re- sources such as silt, dissolved or suspended solids in industrial waste water effluents, dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or other common water pollutants. "Solid-waste disposal" means the collection, storage, treatment, util - ization, processing, or final disposal of solid waste. It is not the purpose of these grants to provide financial assistance for State or interstate solid-waste disposal operations or services, other than survey and planning activities. II. Eligible Applicants Eligible applicants are (a) State agencies designated by the Governor, or other appropriate State authority, to represent a State, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa, and (b) interstate agencies designated as the sole agency responsible for solid- waste disposal planning within their jurisdictional areas. The designated agency may be an existing agency of the State government or a new one established for the purpose of the solid-waste disposal survey and planning activity. It may be an interdepartmental agency, such as a commission, committee, or board. A certification of the designation must be included as a part of the application for a planning grant. UI. Extent of Federal Financial Assistance Federal funds may be granted to pay not more than 50 percent of the cost of solid-waste disposal survey and planning activities. The remainder is to be provided from non-Federal funds. Funds granted to applicants in any one State are limited to *These terms snd conditions are subject to change as deemed necessary by the Public Health Service. PAGENO="0080" 680 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT not more than 12.5 percent of the Federal funds available for this progran~ for each fiscal year's appropriation, For this requirement, planning grants to an inter- state agency will be considered to be granted to the States involved in proportion to the amounts of non-Federal funds budgeted for the project by the participating States, or by the participating municipalities located in the respective States. IV. Applicant Financial Participation Requirements Applicants are required to provide at least 50 percent of the cost of the solid- waste disposal planning activity from funds other than any other Federal grants, or any non-Federal funds used to match other Federal grants. V. Period of Support Although the development of a comprehensive statewide solid-waste disposal plan may require a period longer than three years, applications for grant support will be considered for project periods up to three years. Budget periods within the maximum 3-year projectperiods are 12-monthunitsbeginning onthe first day of the month requested in the application, or the first day of the month mutually agreed upon by the applicant and the Office of Solid Wastes. Support from Federal funds beyond an approved project period should be requested at least nine months prior to the termination date of the currently approved project period. (See Section XVIII, Continuation and Renewal Applications.) VI. Program Direction The agency designated to be the sole agency responsible for solid-waste disposal activities must have, or plan to employ, a full-time employee responsible for these activities, including solid-waste disposal planning. (See Section VIII, Use of Funds. Only that portion of the employee's time that is devoted to the survey and planning activities may be charged to the grant-supported project.) VII. Conditions of Planning Grant In order to be awarded a grant for an approved solid-waste disposal planning project, applicants must provide assurance satisfactory to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service: a. That any survey and planning project is directed toward the production of a comprehensive solid-waste disposal plan, including agricultural, commercial, industrial, and domestic solid-waste disposal for the entire geographic area of the State, or of the interstate jurisdiction; b. That in the conduct of the project there shall be consultation and coordi- nation with other State agencies which have responsibility for any aspect of planning essential to statewide planning for proper and effective solid-waste disposal con- sistent with the protection of the public health, including such factors as population, urban and metropolitan development, land-use planning, water pollution control, air pollution control, and the feasibility of regional solid-waste disposal programs; c. That there shall be an effective arrangement to insure full participation and coordination with related State, interstate, regional, and local planning activities including those. financed in whole or in part with funds granted under section 701 of the Housing Act of 1954 (40 USC 61); and 2 PAGENO="0081" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 681 d. That non_Federal funds are available for at least 50 percent of the cost of the solid-waste disposal planning project inadditiontothose which are available for the applicant's solid-waste disposal program activities not included in the planning project. VIII. Use of Funds When approved in the application, grant funds may be used for the following costs of carrying out the survey and planning program: a. Personp~j - Salaries and wages, including fringe benefits, of professional, technical, clerical, and other staff, and consultants who will render direct services to the approved project. The salary levels of such personnel may be set by the grantee organization according to its own standards, provided no monetary differ- ential is allowed for such personnel because they are to be paid from grant funds. Consultant fees must be the same as those usually paid by the applicant, but may not be paid to a staff member of the applicant organization or any person employed by the State, or the States participating in an interstate planning activity. Grant funds may not be used to pay the salary of a Federal employee. b. Equipment - Specialized items which are needed for the project. c. Supplies - Items which are consumable or expendable, and needed for the projecL~ d. Travel - Transportation, subsistence, and related costs for travel to be performed during the project period and essential to the conduct of the project. e. Other Cos~ - Items not included in one of the above categories, such as communication costs, contractual services, rental of space (but applicant may not charge rent for space which is state-owned or owned by the applicant) utilized by project personnel. Each item for which funds are requested must be separately identified. ix. Limitations on Use of Funds a. Grant funds may not be used for activities for which other Federal grant funds are available, or for activities not described in the approved application. b. Grant funds may not be used for any purpose contrary to the regulations and policies of the Public Health Service or the grantee. c. All obligations of grant funds must be incurred within the approved project period, and liquidated within one year after the end of the budget period in which the obligation was established. X. How to Apply Interested State and interstate agencies are required to submit Form PHS- 4872-1, Application for Solid-Waste Disposal Planning Grant, completed in accord- ance with these terms and conditions and the instructions for completing the application. The original and two copies must be mailed to the appropriate Public Health Service Regional Health Director. (For list of regional offices, see page 8.) In order to coj~pete for Federal funds allocated for the fiscal year i96~~pplicatiOfl! must be receivedin ~egiona1ofice~1ater Y) I2.~. 3 ~8-24O O~-6~6-vo1. II-~ PAGENO="0082" 682 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT In the future, planning grant applications will be considered once a year. Applications may be submitted at any time; however, those received by September 1 of each year will be in competition for the Federal funds available for this program in that fiscal year. Applicants are urged to secure consultation and assistance through the Public Health Service Regional Health Director prior to the development of their proposals and the preparation of the application. Applications are available through the regional offices of the Public Health Service or the Office of Solid Wastes, Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. 20201. XI. Review Procedure and Notification Applications will be reviewed and evaluated by the regional and headquarters staff of the Office of Solid Wastes. The advice of consultants will be sought as deemed necessary by the Chief of the Office. Applicants will be notified in writing of the action taken on their appli- cations about six weeks to two months after the cut-off date for receipt of appli_ c ations. The regional representative will contact approved applicants to negotiate the beginning date of the project period if it is different from that requested in the application. XII. Payment Procedure If the grantee organization has received awards from other Public Health Service programs which are being paid under a letter-of-credit system or other cash control system, the payment for solid-waste disposal planning grants will be incorporated into the same system. For grantee organizations which have no other awards from the Public Health Service, generally an initial payment will be made shortly before the beginning of the project period, and in the amount necessary for the first quarter (or first three- month period). Subsequent payments will be made upon request and in the amounts needed for the next quarterly period. XIII. Rebudgeting of Funds It is expected that expenditures for the project will follow the budget cate- gories (i.e., personnel, equipment, travel, supplies, and other) of the approved application. It is recognized, however, that transfers among the categories may be necessary on occasion. Transfers among budget categories may be made, except in the following instances where prior approval of the transfer must be secured from the Public Health Service: a. Any expenditures in a budget category for which no funds were initially budgeted in the approved application. b. When a transfer regardless of amount would result in and/or reflect a change in the scope of the planning activity described in the approved application; and 4 PAGENO="0083" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 683 c. Any transfers into the equipment and travel categories. Requests for approval of rebudgeting of funds should be submitted by letter to the Office of Solid Wastes. XIV. Planning Project Revisions Public Health Service approval of a revision of an approved planning project is required when: (a) a substantial change in the scope, character, or activities of the project occurs or is proposed; (b) a change in the project director is neces- sitated; or (c) anextensionor other change inthe project is desired. These revisions may be submitted in letter form, although the extent of the changes under (a) above may require submission of a revised application. Normally, a request for ex- tension in project period will be made only near the scheduled terminating date of the project. XV. Accountability and Audit The grantee must establish and maintain a separate account for the grarit~ supported activity, reflecting all receipts, obligations, and disbursements of grant and matching funds. In addition, the grantee must maintain arid -make available for audit purposes supporting fiscal records and documentation as evidence of grant and matching fund expenditures. Such documentation shall be retained until the fiscal audit has been conducted and any questions arising from it have been resolved, and shall include: a. The name of each employee whose salary in whole, or in part, is charged to the grant-supported activity. The agency in which such person is employed shall be identified, together with the total salary paid to such person during the grant period. Time or effort reports, filed within one month following each quarter in which service- is provided, are required to support the salaries charged to the grant, and may be presented as best estimates shown in percentages for professional staff and daily time records for non_professional staff. b. A copy of all travel vouchers, purchase invoices, and contracts charged to the grant_supported activity. c. An identification of all other costs charged to the planning activity. A fiscal audit will be made by the audit staff of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. XVI. Expenditure and Program Reports Reports of expenditures shall be made on the expenditure report form prescribed by the Public Health Service. Reports shall be submitted within 120 days after the close of each 12~month portion of the project period, and also at the end of the project period. These reports shall be submitted in triplicate to the appropriate Regional Health Director. The State or interstate agency must submit, no later than six months after the end of the project period, a final report of its activities under the grant. When a State plan has resulted, the plan itself together with such additional material as is deemed appropriate may be the final progress report. This report shall be submitted to the appropriate Regional Health Director. 5 PAGENO="0084" 684 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Interim progress reports must accompany applications for continuation grants. (See Section XVIII, Continuation and Renewal Applications.) In addition, the Surgeon General may from time to time request special reports. XVII. Termination of Grant and Repayment of Grant Funds A solid-waste disposal planning grant may be terminated at any time before the end of the approved project period by the grantee upon formal notification to the Public Health Service. The Surgeon General may revoke planning grants in whole or in part, or withhold future payments, at any time in the event that he finds that the grantee has failed in a material respect to comply with Federal law or es- tablished grant policies, or has failedto carry out the planning activity as approved. Any unobligated balance in or due the Federal grant account at the end of the project period, at the time of earlier termination of the grant, or after audit, shall be refunded to the Public Health Service. Refund should be made by check payable to the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, XVIII. Continuation and Renewal Applications In the case of solid-waste disposal planning projects which have been approved for a period of more than one year, and for which an initial grant award has been made in an amount for .a lesser period (usually a 12-month period), a continuation application is required. Contingent on the satisfactory development of the planning activity, continuation applications have first claim on available funds. Such appli- cations must be submitted three months priortothe end of each 12-month portion of the project period. Grantees will be provided with the necessary application forms and instructions at the appropriate time. Applications for renewal of a grant beyond the approved project period should be submitted at least nine months prior to the end of the currently approved period. Renewal grant applications are Submitted according to the procedures for a new grant and are reviewed in competition with new and other renewal grant applications. XIX. Publication and Copyright As part of solid-waste disposal planning activities, grantees are urged to publish results and findings in the interest of developing public awareness of solid~ waste disposal problems and enlisting public support for remedial efforts. Public Health Service review or approval of such publications is not required. It is re- quested, however, that Federal grant assistance be acknowledged by including in any such publication the following note: "This solid-waste disposal planning project was supported in part by a grant from the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare." Thirty copies of such publication should be sent to the Regional Health Director for appropriate distribution. Similarly, an author is free to arrange for copyright without Public Health Service approval provided that the Public Health Service is assured of the right to reproduce and distribute copyrighted material resulting from Federally supported project operations. PAGENO="0085" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 685 XX. Patent Policy All inventions arising out of activities supported in whole or in part by the Public Health Service grant funds must be promptly and fully reported to the Surgeon General. Prior to the award of a grant, the Public Health Service must be advised of any outstanding commitments or obligations of the applicant organization, or the professional personnel to be associated with the proposed project, which conflict with the patent regulations of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. A statement concerning patent commitments of the applicant organization, signed by an official of the organization authorized to act in patent matters, must be submitted as part of the initial grant application. In addition, grantees must submit an annual invention statement in connection with continuation applications. XXI. Compliance with Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in the United States, shall on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." The solid-waste disposal planning grant must be operated in compliance with this law, and the irn~ plementing regulations of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (45 CFR, Part 80). (See instructions for filing application). XXII. Further Information or Assistance Further information regarding the Solid-Waste Disposal Planning Grant P rog ram, technical assistance, consultation, and application forms may be obtained through the appropriate Regional Health Director. Information on other solid-waste disposal grant programs may also be obtained from the regional office. PAGENO="0086" 686 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Region I 120 Boylston Street Boston, Mass. 02116 Region II Room 1200, 42 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10004 Region III 700 East Jefferson Street Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Region IV Room 404 50 Seventh Street, N.E., Atlanta, Ga. 30323 Region V Room 712, New Post Office Building 433 West Vax~i Buren Street Chicago, Illinois 60607 Region VI 601 East Twelfth Street Kansas City, Mo. 64106 Region VII 1114 Commerce Street Dallas, Texas 75212 Region VIII Room 551 9017 Federal Office Bldg., 19th and Stout Streets Denver, Cob. 80202 Region IX 447 Federal Office Building Civic Center San Francisco, Calif. 94102 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service REGIONAL OFFICES Region States Included Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Penn- sylvania District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wis- consin Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne- braska, North Dakota, South Dakota Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Okla- homa, Texas Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Ne- vada, Oregon, Washington, Guam, Amer- ican Samoa GPO 904.139 8 PAGENO="0087" SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL DEMONSTRATION OR STUDY AND INVESTIGATION PROJECT GRANTS TERMS AND CONDITIONS DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE OFFICE OF SOLID WASTES WASHINGTON DC. 20201 MARCH 1966 687 PAGENO="0088" 688 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT TERMS AND CONDITIONS GOVERNING SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL DEMONSTRATION OR STUDY AND INVESTIGATION PROJECT GRANTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. Purpose of Demonstration or Study and Investigation Project Grants 1 II. Eligible Applicants 2 III. Extent of Federal Financial Assistance 2 IV. Applicant Financial Participation Requirements 2 V. Period of Support 2 VI. Program Direction 2 VII. Conditions of Grant 3 VIII. Use of Funds 4 IX. Limitations on Use of Funds 5 X. How to Apply 5 XI. Review Procedure and Notification 5 XII. Payment Procedure 6 XIII. Rebudgeting of Funds 6 XIV. Project Revisions 7 XV. Accountability and Audit 7 XVI. Expenditure and Program Reports 8 XVII. Termination of Grant and Repayment of Grant Funds 8 XVIII. Continuation and Renewal Applications 8 XIX. Publication and Copyright 8 XX. Patent Policy 9 XXI. Compliance with Civil Rights Act of 1964 9 XXII. Further Information or Assistance 9 Public Health Service Regional Offices 10 DISCRIMINATION PROHIBITED - Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 States: `No person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of,or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financialassistance," Therefore, the grant and award programs of the Public Health Service, like every program or activity receiving financial assistance from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, must be op. crated in compliance with this law. PAGENO="0089" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 689 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Office of Solid Wastes TERMS AND CONDITIONS GOVERNING SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL DEMONSTRATION OR STUDY AND INVESTIGATION PROJECT GRANTS* I. Purpose of Demonstration or Study and Investigation Project Grants This document sets forth the terms, conditions, and procedures governing the Solid-Waste Disposal Demonstration or Study and Investigation Project Grants Program administered by the Office of Solid Wastes, Public Health Service. The program is authorized by Section 204, Title II, Public Law 89~272, Solid Waste Disposal Act, and the regulations pursuant thereto (42 CFR, Part 59). It provides for Federal grants for the support of demonstration projects of new and improved solid-waste disposal methods, devices, and techniques, studies and investigations of municipal and regional solid-waste disposal problems, practices and programs, and studies and investigations of particular solid-wastes, solid-waste disposal problems, practices, and techniques. This program also provides support for demonstration, study, and investigation projects on the reduction of the amount of solid wastes and unsalvageable waste materials, and the recovery and utilization of potential resources in solid-wastes. "Solid-waste" means garbage, refuse, and other discarded solid materials, including solid-waste materials resulting from industrial, commercial, and agri- cultural operations, and from community activities, but does not include solid or dissolved material in domestic sewage or other significant pollutants in water resources, such as silt, dissolved or suspended solids in industrial waste water effluents, dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or other common water pollutants. "Solid-waste disposal" means the collection, storage, treatment, utili- zation, processing, or final disposal of solid-waste. / The Act also authorizes Federal financial assistance for the construction of facilities necessary to demonstration projects, but not for study and investigation projects as stated above. The term "construction" as defined in Section 203 of the Solid Waste Disposal Act means (a) the erection or building of new structures and acquisition of lands or interests therein, or the acquisition, replacement, expan- sion, remodeling, alteration, modernization, or extension of existing structures, and (b) the acquisition and installation of initial equipment of, or required in con- nection with, new or newly acquired structures or the expanded, remodeled, altered, modernized or extended part of existing structures (including trucks and other motor vehicles, tractors, cranes, and other machinery) necessary for the proper utilization and operation of the facility after completion of the project; and includes preliminary planning to determine the economic and engineering feasibility and the public health, safety, engineering, architectural, legal, fiscal, and economic aspects * These terms and conditions are subject to change as deemed necessary by the Public Health Service. PAGENO="0090" 690 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT of the project, and any surveys, designs, plans, working drawings, specifications, and other action necessary for carrying out the construction of the facility, and (c) the inspection and supervision of the process of carrying out the project to completion. II. Eligible Applicants Any public agency or private non-profit organization in the United States (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa) is eligible to apply for a grant. A private non-profit organization must provide evidence of its non-profit status. III. Extent of Federal Financial Assistance The Federal grant for a solid-waste disposal demor~stration or study and in- vestigation project may not exceed two-thirds of the estimated total cost of the project, including the estimated cost of construction of facilities, if any. The re- mainder is to be provided from non.~Federal funds. Funds granted to applicants in any one State are limited to not more than 12.5 percent of the Federal funds avail- able for this program from each fiscal years appropriation. For this requirement, grants to interstate organizations will be considered to be granted to the States involved in proportion to the amounts of non-Federal funds budgeted for the project by the participating States, or by the participating municipalities located in the respective States. IV. Applicant Financial Participation Requirements Applicants are required to provide at least one-third of the estimated total cost of~ the demonstration project, including the cost of construction of facilities, if any, from funds other than any other Federal grants, or any non-Federal funds used to match other Federal grants. V. Period of Support The length of time for whichdemonstrationor study and investigation project grant support may be requested is dependent upon the concept, the objectives, and the methodology proposed. The Public Health Service limits its approval to grant support to project periods up to three years. Budget periods within the maximum 3-year project periods are 12-month units beginning on the first day of the month requested in an approved application, or the first day of the month mutually agreed upon by the applicant and the Office of Solid Wastes. Grantees may request renewal beyond the originally approved project period for projects which require a longer period for completion. Renewal applications compete with new and other renewal applications in the same manner as original applications. (See Section No. XVIII, Continuation and Renewal Applications.) VI. Program Direction The demonstration or study and investigation project must be under the direc- tion of a full-time director or coordinator responsible for the direction and super- vision of all the activities involved in the project. This is the individual whom the Public Health Service will contact in matters concerning the project. 2 PAGENO="0091" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 691 VII. Conditions of Grant In order to be awarded a grant for an approved solid-waste disposal "Studies and investigation-Municipal and regional project", applicants must provide assur- ance satisfactory to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service: a. That there shall be an effective arrangement to insure full partici- pation and coordination with related State, interstate, regional, and local plan- fling activities; and b. That non-Federal funds are available for at least one-third of the cost of the solid-waste disposal demonstration or study and investigation project in addition to those which are available for the applicant's solid-waste disposal program ac- tivities not included in the project. Further, applicants for demonstration project grar~ts must provide assurance satisfactory to the Surgeon Gei~ral: c. That open dumping or open burning of solid wastes is not authorized or is prohibited by law within the jurisdiction in which the applicant proposes to con- duct the demonstration; except that if such assurance cannot be given: (1) An applicant which is a unit of government responsible for enforcement of laws and regulations relating to solid-waste disposal practices must set forth a schedule acceptable to the Surgeon General for the elimination of open dumping or open burning within its jurisdiction, or (2) An applicant which is not a unit of government responsible for enforcing laws and regulations relating to solid~waste disposal practices must submit a schedule officially adopted by the responsible unit of government. Applicants for demonstration project grants which involve constru~n must also provide assurance satisfactory to the Surgeon General: d. That there will be proper and efficient operation and maintenance of the facility after completion of its construction; e. That the Surgeon General or authorized agents and other persons have access to any facility constructed as part of a demonstration project, and access to the records pertaining to the operation of the facility at any reasonable time; f. That all laborers and mechanics employed by contractors or subcontrac- tors on a project of the type covered by the Davis-Bacon Act, as amended (40 USC 276a-276a-5) will be paid wages at rates not less than those prevailing on similar work in the locality as determined by the Secretary of Labor in accordance with the Act; and g. That he will comply with the requirement of Executive Order 11246, February 24, 1965, (30 FR 12319) pertaining to Equal Employment Opportunity, and with the applicable rules and regulations, and prescribed procedures. PAGENO="0092" 692 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Applicants for study and investigation project grants of national value must, in addition, provide assurance satisfactory to the Surgeon General: h. That the findings of the proposed studies and investigations would be of significant national value in solid-waste disposal practices or programs. Applicants for study and investigation project grants on municipal and regional solid-waste disposal activities must, in addition: i. Be, in the judgment of the SurgeonGeneral, legally responsible or is under existing law authorized or empowered upon compliance with legal requirements to assume responsibility for the provision of solid-waste disposalservices throughout the geographic area covered by the proposed project; and j. Give assurance satisfactory to the Surgeon General that the proposed project will be coordinated with any State-wide plans and programs relating to solid-waste disposal. VIII. Use of Funds When approved in the application, grant funds may be used for the direct costs of carrying out the demonstration, study, or investigation project. These are: a. Personnel - Salaries and wages, including fringe benefits, of professional, technical, clerical, and other staff, and consultants who will render direct services to the approved project. The salary levels of such personnel may be set by the grantee organization according to its own standards, provided no monetary differ- ential is allowed for such personnel because they are to be paid from grant funds. Consultant fees must be the same as those usually paid by the applicant, but may not be paid to a staff member of the applicant organization or any person employed by the grantee or by States participating in an interstate project activity. Grant funds may not be used to pay the salary of a Federal employee. b. ~quipment - Specialized items which are needed for the project. c. Supplies - Items which are consumable or expendable, and needed for the project. d. Travel - Transportation, subsistence, and related costs for travel to be performed during the project period and essential to the conduct of the project. e. Other Co - Items not included in one of the above categories. Examples include: communication costs, contractual services, rental of space (but applicant may not charge rent for space which is State-owned or ownnd by the applicant) utilized by project personnel. Each item for which funds are requested must be separately identified. f. Construction of Facilities - When necessary to a demonstration project, (See definition of "construction,' Section I, Purpose of Grants, and Sections III and IV on financial participation). Estimated costs of the construction of facilities must be included in the application. The estimates must include the estimated costs of major components or items, such as: land, engineering design, equipment, machin- ery, labor, and building materials. Final awards will be based on the completed 4 PAGENO="0093" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 693 detailed design of the construction project, and a negotiated agreement as to other requisite terms and conditions. IX. Limitations on Use of Funds a. Grant funds may not be used for activities for which other Federal grant funds are available, or for activities not described in the approved application. b. Grant funds may not be used for any purpose contrary to the regulations and policies of the Public Health Service or the grantee. c. All obligations of grant funds must be incurred within the approved project period, and liquidated within one year after the end of the budget period in which the obligation was established. X. How to Apply Interested organizations are required to submit Form PHS-4873-1, Applica- tion for Solid-Waste Disposal Demonstration or Study and Investigation Project Grant, completed in accordance with these terms and conditions and the instructions for completing the application. The signed original and one copy must be mailed directly to the Office of Solid Wastes, Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. 20201, Two additional copies must be sent to the appropriate regional office. (For list of regional offices, seepage 1O.)Inorder to compete for Federal funds alloc~t~4 for the fiscal year 1966, applications must be received by the Office of Solid Wastes not later than May 1, 1966. In the future, applications may be submitted at any time, but should be sub- mitted at least six months in advance of the anticipated beginning date of the proj ect. Applicants are urged to request consultation from the State solid-waste dis- posal agency early in the development and design of projects, as well as to consult with, and secure the support of professional and other groups, or appropriate local agencies that will be utilizing or assisting in the provision of the services con- templated by the project. Applicants also may secure consultation and assistance from the appropriate Public Health Service regional representative. Applications are available through the regional offices of the Public Health Service or the Office of Solid Wastes, Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. 20201. XI. Review Procedure and Notification Applications will be considered for funding three times a year: February, May, and October. They will be reviewed and evaluated by the regional and head- quarters staff of the Office of Solid Wastes. At the discretion of the Chief of the Office, expert advice will be secured from outside the Public Health Service on the technical merit of the project proposals. Applicants will be notified in writing of the action taken on their applications about two to four weeks after the final review. 5 PAGENO="0094" 694 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT The regional representative will contact approved applicants to negotiate the beginning date of the project period if it is different from that requested in the application. Review Criteria - The criteria for evaluating the merits of project pro- posals are: 1. Degree to which project objectives are clearly established, attainable, and for which progress toward attainment can and will be measured, 2. The substantive merit and potential contribution of the project toward developing knowledge and techniques for meeting the objectives of the Solid Waste Disposal Act. 3. Degree to which the project can be expected to yield or demonstrate results that will be useful and desirable on a national or regional basis. 4, Availability, adequacy, and competence of the personnel, facilities and other resources needed to carry out the project. 5. For those projects involving construction of a facility proposed, the feasibility of the facility to meet the objectives of the project. 6. Extent of participation and coordination of community groups with related interests in the area of solid-waste disposal. 7. Proportion of project costs to be borne by the applicant and, where ap- propriate, the applicant's plan to continue the activity as an on-going service, after termination of Federal assistance. 8. Degree to which the proposed project is in accordance with the State or regional overall plan, or proposed plan, and priorities with respect to solid-waste disposal services. XII. Payment Procedure If the grantee organization has received awards from other Public Health Service programs which are being paid under a letter-of-credit system or other cash control system, the payment for solid-waste disposal project grants will be incorporated into the same system. For grantee organizations which have no other awards from the Public Health Service, an initial payment generally will be made shortly before the beginning of the project period, and in the amount necessary for the first quarter (or first three-month period). Subsequent payments will be made upon request and in the amounts needed for the next quarterly period. XIII. Rebudgeting of Funds It is expected that expenditures for the project will follow the budget cate- gories (i.e., personnel, equipment, travel, supplies, construction, and other) of the approved application. It is recognized, however, that transfers among the categories `6 PAGENO="0095" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 695 may be necessary on occasion. Transfers among budget categories may be made, except in the following instances where prior approval of the transfer must be secured from the Public Health Service: a. Any expenditures in a budget category for which no funds were initially budgeted in the approved application. b. When a transfer regardless of amount would result in and/or reflect a change in the scope of the project or when the grantee is uncertain as to whether a change affects the character or scope of a project as described in the approved application. c. Any transfers into the equipment, travel, or construction categories. Requests for approval of rebudgeting of funds should be submitted by letter to the Office of Solid Wastes. XIV. Project Revisions Public Health Ser ice approval of a revision of an approved project is re~ quired when: (a) a substantial change in the scope, character, or activities of the project occurs or is proposed; (b) a change in the project director is necessitated; or (c) an extension or other change in the project is desired. These revisions may be submitted in letter form, although the extent of the changes under (a) above may require submission of a revised application. Normally, a request for extension in project period will be made only near the scheduled terminating date of the project. XV. Accountability and Audit The grantee must establish and maintain a separate account for the grant- supported activity, reflecting all receipts, obligations, and disbursements of grant and matching funds. In addition, it must maintain and make available for audit purposes supporting fiscal records and documentation as evidence of grant and matching fund expenditures. Such documentation shall be retained until the fiscal audit has been conducted and any questions arising from it have been resolved, and shall include: a. The name of each employee whose salary in whole, or in part, is charged to the grant-supported activity, together with the total salary paid to such person during the grant period. Time or effort reports, filed within one month following each quarter in which service is provided, are required to support the salaries charged to the grant, and may be presented as best estimates shown in percentages for professional staff and daily time records for non-professional staff. b. A copy of all travel vouchers, purchase invoices, and contracts charged to the grant-supported activity. c. An identification of all other costs charged to the grant-supported activity. A fiscal audit will be made by the audit staff of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 7 PAGENO="0096" 696 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT XVI. Expenditure and Program Reports Reports of expenditures shall be made on the expenditures report form pre- scribed by the Public Health Service. Reports shall be submitted within 120 days after the close of each 12-month portion of the project period, and also at the end of the project period. These reports shall be submitted in triplicate to the appro- priate Regional Health Director. The grantee must submit, no later than six months after the end of the proj- ect period, a final report of its activities under the grant. Six copies of the report should be submitted to the appropriate Regional Health Director. Interim progress reports must accompany applications for continuation grants.. (See Section XVIII, Continuation and Renewal Applications.) In addition, the Surgeon General may from time to time request special reports. XVII' Termination of Grant and Repayment of Grant Funds A solid-waste disposal demonstration or study and investigation project may be terminated at any time before the end of the approved project period by the grantee upon formal notification to the Public Health Service. The Surgeon General may revoke a grant in whole or in part, or withhold future payments, at any time in the event that he finds that the grantee has failed in a material respect to comply with Federal law or established grant policies, or has failed to carry out the activity as approved. Any unobligated balance in or due the Federal grant account at the end of the project period, at the time of earlier termination of the grant, or after audit, shall be refunded to the Public Health Service. Refund should be made by check payable to the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. XVIII. Continuation and Renewal Applications In the case of solid-waste disposal projects which have been approved for a period of more than one year, and for which an initial grant award has been made in an amount for a lesser period (usually a 12-month period), a continuation applica- tion is required. Contingent on the satisfactory development of the project, con- tinuation applications have first claim on available funds. Such applications must be submitted three months prior to the end of each 12-month portion of the project period, Grantees will be provided with the necessary application forms and instruc- tions at the appropriate time. Applications for renewal of a grant beyond the approved project period should be submitted at least nine months prior to the end of the currently approved period. Renewal grant applications are submitted according to the procedures for a new grant and are reviewed in competition with new and other renewal grant appli- cations. XIX. Publication and Copyright As part of solid-waste disposal activities, grantees are urged to publish results and findings in the interest of developing public awareness of solid- waste disposal problems and enlisting public support for remedial efforts. PAGENO="0097" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 697 Public Health Service review or approval of such publications is not required. It is requested, however, that Federal grant assistance be acknowledged by in- cluding in any such publication the following note: `This solid-waste disposal (demonstration or study and investigation) proj ect was supported in part by a grant from the Public Health Service, Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare." Thirty copies of such publication should be sent to the Regional Health Director for appropriate distribution. Similarly, an author is free to arrange for copyright without Public Health Service approval provided that the Public Health Service is assured of the right to reproduce and distribute copyrighted material resulting from Federally sup- ported project operations. XX. Patent Policy All inventions arising out of activities supported in whole or in part by the Public Health Service grantfunds mustbe promptly and fully reported to the Surgeon General. Prior to the award of a grant, the Public Health Service must be advised of any outstanding commitments or obligations of the applicant organization, or the professional personnel to be associated with the proposed project, which conflict with the patent regulations of the U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare. A statement concerning patent commitments of the applicant organization, signed by an official of the organization authorized to act in patent matters, must be sub- mitted as part of the initial grant application. In addition, grantees must submit an annual invention statement in connection with continuation applications. XXI. Compliance with Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in the United States, shall on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." The solid-waste disposal project grant must be operated in compliance with this law, and the im- plementing regulations of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (45 CFR, Part 80). (See instructions for filing application). XXII. Further Information or Assistance Further information regarding the Solid Waste Disposal Demonstration, Study and Investigation Project Grant Program, technical assistance, consultation, and application forms may be obtained through the appropriate Regional Health Director. Information on other solid-waste disposal grant programs may also be ob- tained from the regional office. 9 68-240 0 - 66 - Vol. U - 7 PAGENO="0098" 698 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service REGIONAL OFFICES Region Region I 120 Boylston Street Boston, Mass. 02116 Region II Room 1200, 42 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10004 Region III 700 East Jefferson Street Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Region IV Room 404 50 Seventh Street, N. E., Atlanta, Ga. 30323 Region V Room 712, New Post Office Building 433 West Van Buren Street Chicago, Illinois 60607 Region VI 601 East Twelfth Street Kansas City, Mo. 64106 Region VII 1114 Commerce Street Dallas, Texas 75212 Region VIII Room 551 9017 Federal Office Bldg., 19th and Stout Streets Denver, Cob. 80202 Region IX 447 Federal Office Building Civic Center San Francisco, Calif. 94102 States Included Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Penn- sylvania District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wis consin Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne- braska, North Dakota, South Dakota Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Okla- homa, Texas Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Ne- vada, Oregon, Washington, Guam, American~ Samoa 10 PAGENO="0099" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 699 Question 5: With respect to the coordination of Federal action re- garding air, water, and solid waste pollution abatement, what agree- ments e~4st between HEW and other agencies and how is coordination effected to insure that Federal choices and emphasis among research programs do not create problems and deficiencies in other areas? Answer: The recent transfer of the Federal Water Pollution Con- trol Administration from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to the Department of the Interior will require that new lines of communication and coordination be established with this program. The necessary arrangements are currently being worked out by repre- sentatives of both Departments. Coordination with the Bureau of Mines of the Department of the Interior, whose research in air pollution is supported in .part by con- tracts with the Division of Air Pollution, is accomplished by frequent top-level meetings and almost constant liaison among lower level scien- tific personnel. The Bureau of Mines (and all other Federal agencies conducting research under contracts with the Division of Air Pollu- tion) submits quarterly reports of technical progress and an annual summary report. The need for close coordination with the activities of the Office of Solid Waste Disposal of the Public Health Service is met in large part through constant communication with staff of that program. The fact that both the Office of Solid Wastes and the Division of Air Pollution are in the same organizational unit of the Public Health Service facilitates liaison and provides opportunities for policy and planning coordination at the next highest level of authority. The Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences of the Federal Council for Science and Technology is charged with promot- ing closer cooperation among Federal agencies concerned with prob- lems in the atmospheric sciences, facilitating resolution of common problems, improving the planning and management of research in this area, and advising the President on coordination of Federal pro- grams in the atmospheric sciences. The Division of Air Pollution rep- resents the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare on this Committee. The Division of Air Pollution also represents the Department on the Federal Committee for Meteorological Services and Applied Mete- orological Research, which seeks to coordinate the activities of all Fed- eral agencies that provide and use meteorological services or `are en- gaged in meteorological research. The purposes of this group include coordination of research activities, sharing of facilities where pos- sible, standardization of equipment, cooperation in recruitment and training, and identification of major limitations in meteorological knowledge. A number of Federal agencies which are not directly concerned with air pollution are nonetheless involved in activities which have an im- portant bearing on community air pollution problems. Examples of such programs include the urban renewal and urban mass transit ac- tivities of the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the activities of the General Services Administration with respect to purchases of motor vehicles for use by Federal agencies. The legisla- tion `authorizing the urban `mass transit program required that new vehicles purchased with Federal ~id meet air pollution control speci- PAGENO="0100" 700 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT fications established by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Wel- fare. The development and application of these specifications have been a subject of regular contact between personnel of the Division of Air Pollution and the Department of Housing and Urban Develop- ment. In similar fashion, standards established by the General Serv- ices Administration for control of air pollution from the new motor vehicles it purchases were developed through consultation with the Division of Air Pollution. No mechanism exists for regular liaison with the National Science Foundation. The National Science Foundation has not requested that it be kept advised of technological needs in the air pollution field. The accompanying report provides additional information on co- ordination of Federal activities in the field of air pollution control. CURRENT TRENDS IN FEDERAL INTERAGENCY RELATIONS CONCERNING AIR POLLUTION (By the Division of Air Pollution, Public Health Service, Dep~rtment of Health, Education, and Welfare, June 1965) An important and interesting aspect of the Federal air pollution control pro- gram, since its inception in 1955 with the passage of Public Law 84-159, has been the participation in this program by several Federal departments and agencies. However, recent developments have been altering the pattern of interagency rela- *tlonships in this field. Prior to the enactment of P.L. 84-159 in 1955, "an Act to provide resea:rch and technical assistance relating to air pollution control," an Ad Hoc Interdepart- mental Oommibtee on Community Air Pollution was established, in accordance with an informal request from the Office of the President, to survey the Federal role in air pollution and to make recommendations. In its report of April 8, 1955, the Committee included, among its several recommendations, the following: "In conducting this program, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare should utilize the available facilities an.d resources of other Federal departments and agencies for such necessary services as can best be provided by `them." P.L. 84-159, whIch was the first Federal statute authorizing an organized Federal air pollution program, incorporated many of the key recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee. It authorized the Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, to develop broad air pollution research programs, in cooperation with other Federal agencies. The Report of the Committee and the Federal air pollution legislation which followed in 1955, clearly designated the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to be the responsible agency for planning, directing, and conducting the overall program. This early and definite recognition of the desirability of broad Federal agency participation, under the general direction of the Public Health Service, Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare was based on several key factors: (1) The potential serious health hazards of air pollution, as exemplified by the Donora and London disasters and the acute problem in Los Angeles, constituted the `basic impetus for the initiation of the Federal program. As a consequence, central responsibility for the program was lodged In the PHS-DHEW. At the same time, the potential health hazards created a sense of urgency to protect the public health through the rapid development of an effective air pollution control program. The use of existing organizations, with applicable technical competence and experience, appeared to offer the most promise for the earliest possible progress. (2) On general principles of efficiency and sound management, it appeared desirable to make use of existing specialized technical expertise in the Federal establishment, and to avoid the potential cost of unnecessary duplication in build- ing up parallel technical groups. In essence, the rationale of the Economy Act of 1932, which authorized the transfer of funds between Government agencies for the exchange of appropriate services, is pertinent to this approach. (3) The terms of P.L. 84-159 were such as to place major emphasis on research programs. Broad research activity was authorized toward the end of elucidating the causes, behavior, effects, and means for control of air pollution. Such research activity necessarily involves many scientific, engineering, and related PAGENO="0101" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 701 technical disciplines. These disciplines, with the related accumulation of orga- nizational experience, were to be found in several of the Federal departments and agencies. Several prominent examples are the meteorological competence of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, the plant physiology competence in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the combustion and fuel technology experience of the Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Accordingly, a series of contractual arrangements was developed between the Public Health Service and the several Federal departments and agencies. From the central Federal air pollution appropriation made to the Public Health Service, funds were transferred, under the terms of the Economy Act, to the contractor Federal agencies. A summary listing of these contractual arrangements follows: FEDEKAL AGENCY AND NATURE OF SERVICES PROVIDED Department of Agriculture Research studies and technical assistance activities to determine the effects of air pollutants on agriculture and to explore the use of agricultural damage as indicators of air pollution. Department of Agriculture scientific personnel have been assigned to the Division of Air Pollution laboratories in Cincinnati, Ohio, under `this arrangement. National Bureau of fgtandards, Department of Commerce Research project's concerned with the chemical reactions of various pollutants in the atmospheres and with the development of analytical procedures for the determination and measurement of certain pollutants. This work has been principally carried out in the research facilities of the National Bureau of Standards. Bureau of Mince, Department of the Interior A variety of research projects relating to combustion processes, including work on sulfur dioxide removal from flue gas, desulfurizatlon of fuel oil, removal of pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust, analytical methods for measurement of motor vehicle exhaust, extinguishment of burning coal mine waste piles, and In- cineration techniques. These activities have been carried out in several of the Bureau of Mines' laboratories. Weather Bureau, Department of Commerce Research and technical assistance activities concerned with the meteorological aspects of air pollution. These include the transport of air pollutants, diffu- sion and dispersal of pollutants, tracer studies, development of episode fore- casting techniques, and adaptation of the meteorological factor to land use control in industrial zoning. The Weather Bureau has a team of professional meteorolo- gists assigned to the Division of Air Pollution research laboratories in Cincin- nati, Ohio, where the principal activities are conducted; some air pollution research is carried out in Weather Bureau facilities. Library of Congress Air pollution literature abstracting services which have been coordinated with the related activities of the Air Pollution Control Association and appear as APOA Abstract's. The Library concentrates on foreign journals and on the biological sciences. Tennessee Valley Authority Studies to document flume behavior and related elements under various mete- orological conditions with emphasis upon studies concerned with sulfur dioxide emissions. `This work is primarily carried out at TVA plants and facilities. Census Bureau, Department of Commerce The Census Bureau has been used intermittently, on a contract basis, as a key input factor for epideiniological studies involving large population groups. Studies associating various diseases with air pollution, particularly in urban areas, make use of data developed by the Bureau. For the most part, these contractual relationships started in 1956 and have continued to date. The specific, discrete, projects which are undertaken by the contractor agencies are developed through technical discussions and negotiations and are documented in formal letters of agreement between the Public Health Service and the agencies concerned. Technical progress and related fiscal re- ports are submitted to the Public Health Service on a quarterly basis. PAGENO="0102" 702 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT The common thread which runs through all of the arrangements listed above is the research and research-related nature of the services provided. As men- tioned above, this was a logical consequence of the research emphasis of P.L. 84- 159, the first Federal air pollution law enacted in 1955. Much valuable scientific and technical information has resulted from this intra- Governmental research effort. It is not the purpose of this paper to document these contributions, but some degree of this contribution is evidenced by the many published technical papers, reports, monographs, and other manifestations of the work of these agencies. CURRENT TRENDS SINCE THE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1963 The Clean Air Act (Public Law 88-206), "an Act to improve, strengthen, and accelerate programs for the prevention and abatement of air pollution," was signed by the President December 17, 1963. The main thrust of this legislation may be summarized as an extension of the Federal air pollution program from one of a relatively limited research and technical assistance orientation to one placing much greater emphasis on prevention and control of air pollution. While continuing to recognize "that the prevention and control of air pollution at its source is the primary responsibility of States and local governments," this new emphasis on control is revealed in several provisions of the Act. Grants- in-aid, on a matching basis, are authorized for award to States and communi- ties for initiation, extension, or improvement of air pollution control programs. Limited Federal abatement authority is authorized, principally in areas of inter- state air pollution, Another provision empowers the Secretary of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare to carry out a permit system as a means of controlling air pollution from Federal installations. This recent legislative emphasis on actual control activities is reflected in a newly emerging pattern of relationships between other Federal agencies and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare which continues to have respon- sibility for and the overall coordinating and directing role in the Federal air pollution program. Concomitant with these newly emerging patterns reflecting control emphasis, the Clean Air Act calls for a strengthening of the research program and, addi- tionally, calls for special attention to specific areas of research. Examples of such areas are the development of processes, methods and prototype devices for control; the development of air quality criteria; and research toward the develop- ment of techniques for extraction of sulfur from fuels. This renewed emphasis on difficult research problem areas will probably result in a continued and ac- celerated use of certain of the Federal agencies a's a means of moving ahead more rapidly. For example, the expertise of the Bureau of Mines in fuel tech- nology will be most valuable in a stepped-up research activity concerned with the widespread problem of oxides of sulfur in the atmosphere. Thus, the research challenges still before us will continue to require contractual research services of key Federal agencies. At the same time there is also now emerging a new pattern of Federal agency relationships, concerned principally with prevention and control activity. AIR POLLUTION FROM FEDERAL FACILITIES The activity involving the most broad and far-reaching set of Federal agency relationships relates to the provisions of Section 7 of the Clean Air Act, "Coopera- tion by Federal Agencies to Control Air Pollution from Federal Facilities." Section 7(a) essentially carries forward previous Government policy (Execu- tive Order 10779 of 1958) and previous statutory provisions in P.L. 84-159 calling upon Federal agencies to cooperate, to the extent practicable, with the Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare and with State and local air pollution control agencies, in controlling pollutant discharges from Federal installations. Section 7(b) authorizes the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to establish classes of potential pollution sources under Federal jurisdiction and authorizes the operation of a permit system for such sources. These provisions of the Act have their roots in Congressional intent that Federal installations perform in an exemplary manner and in general observe good community relationships. The legal problems involving Federal sovereignty and immunity from State or local regulations, of course, `still obtain, but the intent is to encourage compliance and to place the Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare in a position of leadership, guidance, and direction to insure PAGENO="0103" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 703 that this is accomplished. The Office of the President, through the Bureau of the Budget, is firmly in support of a vigorous implementation of Section 7. The latter agency has directed in its instructions to all Federal departments and agencies, that in preparing budget estimates for the design and construction of new Fed- eral facilities, they include provisions for air and water pollution controls in accordance with technical instructions issued by the Public Health Service. Such instructions have now been developed by the Public Health Service for the ouidance of Federal agencies. In addition, technical instructions, in the form of guides of good practice, for the use of Federal agencies in dealing with pollution from existing facilities are now being prepared. The administrative and operational procedures for the operation of the permit system by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare are being devel- oped. The first class of pollution sources to be given attention is open burning of material for disposal or salvage. After an inventory of atmospheric emis- sions from Federal installations is completed, it will be possible to adequately classify the potential sources of other pollution from Federal installations. If one were to assess the potential for success, from a strictly classical and theoretical management viewpoint, of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare effectively operating a control program where sister departments are the objects of control, and where no administrative, bureaucratic, or bierarchial advantage exists for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, one might indeed be somewhat pessimistic. Classical theory notwithstanding, our experience to date gives us every reason for optimism on the future success of this program. Initial responses from the many Federal agencies which operate installations have indicated a clear recognition of their responsibilities and a desire to cooperate with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in carrying out Section 7 of the Clean Air Act. The Division of Air Pollution, of the Public Health Service, has established a Federal Agencies Section in its Abatement Branch, which is now Implementing this program on a full-time basis. This type of program administration, involving practically daily contacts with the Federal agencies, Is in contrast to the research contract type of relationship, where a Public Health Service technical monitor periodically reviews the work of the contractor agency, and consults on an intermittent basis. There is continuing interest by the Congress in the problem of effective pro- grams to insure exemplary air pollution control practices by Federal agencies. At this writing, the Senate has passed S. 560, which calls for the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to establish automotive emission standards for Governmentally purchased vehicles. The Act would also provide for greater authority for the Secretary through a program of certification as to acceptability of proposed air pollution control measures in Federal installations. URBAN MASS TRANSPORTATION ACT Another area where the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has entered into new relationships with another Federal agency, concerned with air pollution prevention and control, is in the field of urban mass transit. Section 11 of the Urban Mass Transportation Act (P.L. 88-365), enacted by Congress in 1964, directs the Administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency, in reviewing applications for Federal financial assistance, to take into consideration whether equipment and facilities financed under the Act will be designed and equipped to prevent and control air pollution in accordance with criteria estab- lished by the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The legislative history of this Act reveals the intent of the Congress, in encour- aging needed solutions to the difficult problems of city traffic congestion, to avoid an aggravation of air pollution problems associated with the several forms of mass transit-such as bus operation and power stations for rail systems. Technical criteria have been developed and transmitted to the Administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency for his use in reviewing applications for Federal financial assistance for transit equipment and facilities. Technical representatives of the Division of Air Pollution and the Housing and Home Finance Agency plan to meet periodically to review the program under Section 11 of the Mass Transportation Act. Amendment to the air pollution criteria will be made as experience indicates a need therefor. The Division of Air Pollution anticipates being called upon periodically for specialized technical consultation in connection with special problems or questions of interpretation, which are likely to arise in the course of the administration of the mass transpor- PAGENO="0104" 704 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT tation program by the Housing and Home Finance Agency. The Division of Air Pollution views this new program as a promising means for preventing new air pollution problems from developing as an unwanted side effect of a broad scaled, national program to promote urban mass transportation. OTHER INTER-AGENCY RELATIONSHIPS Principal attention in this paper has been given to the newly established Fed- eral agency relationships outlined above because these relationships have their basis directly in recently enacted Federal legislation. Several other patterns of relationships, which have a control rather than a research emphasis, are also emerging, even though no specific legislation has conditioned or occasioned them. Thus, in the field of air pollution, mutual interests of the Public Health Service and the Housing and Home Finance Agency are based upon the character of air pollution as both a cause of urban blight and deterioration, and an effect of the various facets of urban development. This mutuality of interests has been the basis for discussions directed toward the development of cooperative efforts be- tween the two agencies which seek (1) to develop in State and local community leaders and planning agencies a recognition of this interrelationship, (2) to en- courage communities to incorporate explicitly in their community, planning and survey activities and in their community development program operations, ap- propriate elements reflecting this interrelationship, and (3) to develop such policies and procedures within the two Federal agencies, particularly with respect to financial aids and technical assistance, as will foster the accomplishment of these objectives. The purpose of the Urban Planning Assistance ("701") Grants administered by the Housing and Home Finance Agency is to provide assistance for compre- hensive planning for entire urban areas. Studies of air pollution are considered important, both by the Housing and Home Finance Agency and the Public Health Service, as factors in sound comprehensive urban planning; based upon this recognition, the two agencies have worked closely concerning a study of air pollution in the Chicago metropolitan area conducted jointly by the Regional Planning Agency and the State and local air pollution agencies and financed in part by a "701" grant. The Public Health Service has had discussions with the Housing and Home Finance Agency oil a series of other areas although no formal operating programs involvin.g the Service have as yet ensued. Some of the areas of joint concern include the possible incorporation of air pollution as an element of the Work- able Program for Community Improvement required as a prerequisite to various forms of HIJFA financial assistance, urban transportation planning, open space planning, general zoning developments, problems concerning the disposal of demo- lition debris from urban renewal projects, solid waste removal problems, and community facilities financial assistance as they relate to incineration. It is probable, that as these programs develop, the air pollution component will tend to be more formally and regularly incorporated into these programs. The Pub- lie Health Service will be continuing to work with the Housing and Home Finance Agency toward this end. An interesting and potentially productive relationship has developed in recent years between the Federal Power Commission and the Public Health Service with respect to air pollution. The Public Health Service has been requested by the Federal Power Commission to provide technical information and testimony in connection with applications before the Commission concerned with the transmission of natural gas. The air pollution issue has arisen with respect to the pollution emitting characteristics of various fuels, the location of power generating plants, and the health and other effects of various pollutants. The Chief of the Division of Air Pollution, Mr. Vernon G. MacKenzie, has served on an air pollution advisory group which provided information for the Federal Power Commission National Power Survey issued in 1964. These relationships in general indicate the recognition of the air pollution problem as a factor to be given consideration in the types of determinations the Federal Power Commis- sion has the responsibility to make. In its January 1965 Economic Report to the President, the Council of Eco- nomic Advisors gave explicit attention, for the first time, to air pollution. The Report pointed out the lack of economic incentives for polluters to correct their pollution problems. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has a representative on a working group established by the Council to explore PAGENO="0105" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 705 possible avenues for presenting financial incentives for polluters to take preven- tion and control measures. The Division of Air Pollution has been providing technical background on air pollution to assist in consideration and formulation of Federal policy in this area. IMPLICATIONS FOR STATE, LOCAL, AND REGIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS The various kinds of interrelationships between air pollution and other facets of public and private activities, which are the basis for the interagency relation- ships at the Federal level discussed above, are, of course, relevant to State and local programs for the prevention and control of air pollution. In the United States the primary responsibility for the control of air pollution at its source rests with State and local governments; consequently, the need for and the oppor- tunity to develop a high degree of coordination and cooperation among all agencies of local government is particularly great. The keynote to this approach to air pollution control was well stated by S. Smith Griswold, Air Pollution Control Officer of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, as follows: 1 "Across the country thousands of municipal, county and State officials are vitally concerned with the development and redevelopment of our Nation's urban and metropolitan communities. We're demolishing old structures, re- designing our transportation systems, and executing a wholesale physical re- construction of our community core areas. While we're doing this, we should also be concerned with the quality of air our citizens are breathing. We should place the protection and preservation of acceptable air quality on a par with the physical reconstruction of our communities, and we should give increased attention to the many facets of community design that must affect our future community air quality configuration." `The possible ways in which this concept might be implemented are discussed below: (1) An obvious, parallel at the State and local levels to the Federal program for control of air pollution from Federal installation's, discussed above, is the importance of making sure that the State, county, and city conduct their activi- ties with the least possible contribution to local air pollution problems. Steps need `to `be taken to insure that the very best available technology for controlling air pollution is incorporated in the plans and specifications fo'r the construction of public facilities such as `schools, hospitals, public housing, public works opera- tions, incinerators and similar `types of projects. There are many ways that this can be administratively `accomplished but `the essential ingredient is that an explicit element o'f the planning for such facilities be consideration of their air pollution potential. This can be accomplished by requiring all such plans to be reviewed `by the air pollution agency or requiring adherence to technical criteria established by `the air pollution control agency. T'he effective implementation of any such `system will obviously require the strong support `and commitment of top officials and legislative bodies to the need for air pollution control. (2) Many `of the crucial decisions concerning whether or not we are presently creating air pollution problems for `the future are made prior to the actual time that a particular construction program is implemented. These decisions `are made in connection with community planning with regard to land uses and the subsequent zoning decision's to administratively implement such plans. The kinds of uses to which land will be put and `the criteria or standards used for determining `the `specific `characteristics of activities permitted to be conducted can he crucial in determining the air quality of our communities in `the future. As such, there is a clear need for `the consideration o'f the air pollution potential involved in `such decision's. In `the light of these considerations, the air pollution agency should be recognized as `an important technical advisor to planning and zoning agencies. There are, of course, in addition to the air pollution factor, a number of other important considerations and issues which will affect the final decisions which `are made. It is important, however, `that air pollution considera- tions be explicitly available to the decision-maker; the lack of information avail- able to the decision-maker should not be `the ba'si's for creation of new air pollu- tion prc~blems by default. 1 "Response: The Reasonable Approach to' Air Pollution Control," National Conference on Air Pollution (1962), ProceedIngs (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963,), p. 14. PAGENO="0106" 706 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT (3) Considerable room for coo'peratioi~i and coordination, particularly at the municipal level, exists with regard to the regulatory programs concerning the health and safety aspects of housing and other types of construction. Such agencies as health departments, building departments, fire departments as well as air pollution agencies are frequently concerned with the inspection, surveil- lance, and enforcement of various local ordinances, rules, and regulations in this field. The difficult problems involved in attempting to coordinate these activities so as to avoid inefficiencies, overlaps, duplications and conflicting requirements upon those subject to such regulation have long been a matter of discussion and controversy. It is, however, an area of great importance to the overall quality of local government and should be of intense interest to air pollution agencies as a possible means of `strengthening their programs while conserving scarce re- sources, funds and personnel. (4) Greater coordination between air pollution agencies and agencies con- cerned with the construction of highways, uitan renewal projects and other operations `of this nature is desirable with respect to `the problem of preventing air pollution associated with the disposal of demolition debris. Although improved `technology is vitally needed with respect to this problem, greater attention to the utilization of presently available methods an'd practices can do much t'o improve existing situations. Further, concerted attention by all agencies and groups con- cerned i's likely to `stimulate needed research and development activities concern- ing this problem. (5) A particular aspect of thegeneral problem of governmentally controlled or aided construction and facilities relates to urban renewal projects and public housing. With respect to public housing, `careful attention needs to be given `to the incorporation in such project's of appropriate `design criteria with respect to heating an'd incineration equipment. Further, attention needs to be given to the employment and training of personnel responsible for the maintenance and oper- ation of such equipment. With regard to urban renewal projects, inter-agency coordination in developing criteria and standards with respect to demolition debris disposal, heating, incineration, and other potential sources of air pollution, to which the private developer would agree to conform, would be highly desirable. This, of course, is a special application of a more general problem of carrying out the responsibilities of air pollution control agencies with respect to apartment houses, commercial buildings and other sources under private as well as public control. SUMMARY Under the first Federal Air Pollution Act of 1955, which assigned the respon- sibility for developing a national program to the Public Health Service, a signi- ficant ph'ase of the program involved other Federal agencies through a series of contractual relationships. These interdepartmental relationships were limited, however, to the objective of capitalizing on the diverse research facilities and specialized competencies within the Federal establishment, as a means of acceler- ating the research and technical assistance program authorized under the Acit. With the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1963, a major new em.phas'is h'a's been added to the Federal `air pollution control program. Application of technical knowledge, through broadly accelerated control programs, is the predominant `theme of this Act. This emphasis is reflected In current trend's in the nature and type `of the Public Health Service'.s developing relationships wi'th other'Federal agencies. The emerging PHS programs to prevent and control air pollution from Federal facilities, the PBS role in preventing pollution `arising from transporta- tion systems aided under the new Urban Mass Transportation Act, and other developing interagency relationships and problem areas are examples of this re- cent trend. There are important parallels and implications of these new Federal relationships for State, local, `and regional air pollution control programs. Coordination of Federal efforts in the closely related fields of air pollution control and solid waste management is facilitated by the fact that both Federal programs are located within the same Bureau of the Public Health Service. Furthermore, close liaison is maintained be- tween the staffs of the Office of Solid Wastes and the Division of Air Pollution to assureS c~omp1ete and productive coordination of the re- search and development activities of the two programs in areas where their interests and responsibilities merge. PAGENO="0107" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 707 The Department of the Interior is assigned certain responsibilities under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965. A memorandum of un- derstanding entered into by the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Interior, a copy of which is printed below,, out- lines the mechanism of coordination whereby the two Departments coordinate their respective efforts under the Solid Waste Disposal Act. Coordination with the water pollution program of the Department of the Interior is managed through the Office of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. The recent transfer of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to the Department of the Interior has caused some disruption of communication between this Office and the FWPCA. It will be necessary to redefine effective avenues through which coordination in the area of solid waste research and develop- ment can be achieved. Because the Department of Housing and Urban Development has certain programs and responsibilities relating to urban planning, which can involve solid waste management planning, close contact is main- tained between the Office of Solid Wastes and appropriate agencies and officials of the Department of Housing and Urban Development to assure that the efforts of these two agencies complement, rather than conflict with, one another. Enclosed for the information of the Subcommittee is a copy of a cooperative project agreement involving the Office of Solid Wastes, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and Johnson City, Tenn. (see p. 709). This agreement illustrates the type of cooperative coordinated effort which will increasingly call on the resources of two or more Federal agencies involved in programs directly or tangentially relating to the management of solid wastes and research and development in this field. Attachments. MEMORANDUM OF UNDE1ISTANDING; DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE, PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; AND THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF MINES IMPLEMENTATION OF TITLE II, THE SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ACT OF 1965, PUBLIC LAW 89-272 The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, and the Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, each has an area of respon- sibility for implementing the provisions of Public Law 89-272, the Solid Waste Disposal Act, and are mutually desirous of developing a coordinated program toward the attainment of common objectives under the Act. The report of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce (Report No. 899, Page 27, lines 19 through 36), states that, under the provisions of the bill, subsequently enacted as Public Law 89-272, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare "would be responsible for administration of the Act, except that the Secretary of the Interior will be responsible for `solid waste resulting from the extraction, processing or utilization of minerals and fossile fuels where the generation, pro- duction, or reuse of such wastes is or may be controlled within the extraction, processing or utilization facility or facilities and where such control is a feature of the technology or economy of the operation of such facility or facil- ities'. This arrangement would make the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare responsible for administration of the Act with respect to solid waste problems of communities, including those problems which may affect the general environments of communities, and including those solid wastes or solid waste residues that result from business and industrial activities and become part of the community's solid waste disposal system. The Department of the Interior, PAGENO="0108" 708 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT as above indicated, would be responsible for solving industrial solid waste prob- lems within facilities engaged in extraction, processing, or utilization of minerals and fossil fuels in the circumstances above defined." To accomplish these objec- tives, the Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines have entered into this Memorandum of Understanding in order to define and describe the principal areas of program interest of each agency and to clearly establish a mutually acceptable working relationship which insures proper coordination of all programs under Public Law 89-272. It is mutually agreed that: A. The Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines will designate officials to act as the principal contacts and liaison officers at the program level in inter- agency matters pertaining to Public Law 89-272. B. In regard to demonstration grant applications under Section 204 of Public Law 89-272, the Public Health Service will refer to the Bureau of Mines for necessary action, those demonstration grant applications pertaining primarily to mineral or fossil fuel solid waste problems as defined under Section 203(1) of the Act; and the Bureau of Mines will refer to the ?ublic Health Service for neces- sary action those demonstration grant applicatlons pertaining to other solid waste problems. 0. The Public Health Service will refer to the Bureau of Mines for review and comment those demonstration grant applications which give major emphasis to components involving mineral, metal, and fossil fuel solid waste problems as part of a broader solid waste disposal program; and the Bureau of Mines will refer to the Public Health Service for review and comment those demonstra- tion grant applications in which the mineral and fossil fuel solid waste problems have significant community implications. In the above cases, it is understood that any comments the reviewing agency wishes to make will be forwarded within a period of fifteen (15) working days from the time of receipt. D. The Bureau of Mines and the Public Health Service may support, on a joint basis, demonstration, research, or training projects which have Implications for disposal of solid wastes from minerals or fossil fuels and from community sources. Fl. The Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines will perform reimburs- able services for each other, when such action is appropriate and feasible and mutually beneficial to the agencies. F. The Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines will exchange informa- tion regarding program activities under Public Law 89-272. This will include information on grant awards and similar actions. G. The Public Health Service in carrying out its responsibilities for developing comprehensive State and local solid waste programs, and in providing technical assistance to State and local agencies and industry, will need technical informa- tion from the Bureau of Mines. From time to time such information will be made available by the Bureau of Mines to the Public Health Service. H. Since the processing and disposal of automobile and other metallic scrap involve problems of community environmental pollution, blight, and parallel re- source problems in the technology of salvage and utilization, the Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines may jointly conduct projects on broad phases of the junk and scrap auto problem, and individually on specific appropriate com- plementary segments. This Memorandum of Understanding shall become effective upon acceptance of 1)0th parties, and shall continue indefinitely, `but may be modified at the request of either of the cooperative agencies. `This agreement may be terminated by either agency upon thirty (30) days notice in writing. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDU- BUREAU OF MINES CATION, AND WELFARE, PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE (Title) (Title) (Date) (Date) PAGENO="0109" ADEQUACY OF TF~CHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 709 CooPERATIVE PRO3ECT AGREEMENT I. Title of Project: "Joint U.S. Public Health Service-Tennessee Valley Au- thority Composting Project, Johnson City, Tennessee," hereinafter referred to as "the Project." II. Parties to the Agreement: A. U.S~ Public Health Service, Washington, D.C., hereinafter referred to as "PHS." B. Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee, hereinafter re- ferred to as "TVA." C. City of Johnson City, Tennessee, hereinafter referred to as "the City." III. Term of Agreement: This agreement shall be of full force and effect for a period of 7 years from the date of execution hereof, unless sooner terminated in accordance with the provisions of this agreement. This agreement may be renewed upon mutual agreement of the parties hereto. IV. The parties hereby agree that the purpose of the 1roiect, which includes the design, construction and operation of a composting plant in Johnson City, Tennessee, is to demonstrate the engineering and economic feasibility of produc- ing compost from mixed refuse and raw and digested sewage sludge; to conduct research into the health aspects of the use and processing of such compost and into the con~mercial and agricultural use and acceptability of the finished product and is not i~tended as a substitute for the maintenance of adequate sewage treat- fl)ent facilities and refuse disposal service by the City. V. The p4rties further agree as follows: A. The City agrees- 1. To furnish, without cost to the other parties hereto, a site of approxi- mately ten acres adjacent to the City sewage treatment plant, for the con- struction of the composting plant, which site is more particularly described in appendix "A" which is attached hereto and made a part hereof. 2. To furnish without cost to PBS and TVA, such road easements and utility rights-of-way as PHS and TVA may determine to be neces~ary for the use of the aforementioned site for the project. 3. To permit PBS and TVA access to such City property as necessary in connection with the conduct of the project. 4. To deliver to the compost plant such normal mixed refuse and special wastes as available from its refuse collection system in such amounts and at such times as PHS and TVA may request. 5. To deliver to the compost plant such raw sludge and such digested or partially digested sludge, in such amounts as may be available from its* sewage treatment plant, and at such times as PHS and TVA may request. ~. To permit PHS and TVA to use City laboratory facilities at the City sewage treatment plant to the extent the City determines that such use will not interfere with its own use of the laboratory. 7. To remove from the compost plant upon request any solid, semi-solid or raw materials and processed or partially processed compost within 24 hours and to dispose of all such materials. 8. To accept at no charge to PB'S and TVA all waste water (including sanitary sewage, effluent from sludge thickening and other compost plant processes, and wash water) from the compost plant, piping and pumping to be by PBS and TVA. 9. To maintain and operate at no cost to PBS and TVA such City property, buildings, equipment and facilities as may be required for the continued operation of the compost plant. 10. To furnish such other facilities and services as it can readily provide that may be requested by PBS and TVA. B. TVA agrees, subject to the provisions of paragraph V, section C and without cost to the City- 1. To design a compost plant, including all buildings, structures and ap- purtenances thereto, to meet the following requirements. The plant shall be of the windrow type and which will have a rated capacity of 10 tons per hour of mixed refuse and up to 2,500 gallons per hour of sewage sludge. The plant shall be designed to be capable of providing maximum dependability of service and of providing information on comparative operation of individual units of processing equipment. The composting plant shall be designed so as `to be capable of performing the following functions: (a) shredding to increase active surface area of processed material, (b) moisture control by PAGENO="0110" 710 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT adding water or dry material, and (c) mixing to uniformly compost all the material being treated. The composting plant shall be equipped with necessary materials handling equipment, including receiving hopper, plate conveyor, belt conveyors, magnetic separators, sewage sludge thickener, rasping machine, hammermill, and windrow placing and turning machinery. The composting plant shall be capable of producing processed refuse, formed into windrows, approximately five feet high and seven feet wide at the base, to undergo decomposition. The processing equipment will be housed in a modular sheet metal industrial type building with concrete footings and concrete slab floor. The composting plant shall provide for active composting to take place in unprotected windrows, but with a covered curing and storage building in which to complete the decomposition, dry, and store the finished compost. This temporary building will be near the processing building, will be roofed to protect compost from rain, and will be high enough to permit the entrance and maneuvering of dump trucks and front-end loaders. Office, laboratory and visltor reception space on the site will be provided in a building of temporary construction. 2. To submit to PIIS plans and specifications for a compost plant which meets the requirements of subsection 1 above, together with the estimated cost of construction of such plant. 3. To construct, operate, and maintain a compost plant in accordance with plans approved therefor by PHS. 4. To conduct studies, research, experiments and investigations of the feasibility of commercial and agricultural use of the compost produced. 5. To remove at the termination of this agreement all buildings, structures and appurtenances erected for the project, unless said buildings, structures and appurtenances are otherwise disposed of with the approval of the City and of PHS and In accordance with applicable Federal requirements for the disposal of Government property in effect at the time of termination. C. PHS agrees: 1. To pay TVA for costs incurred in the design, construction, maintenance and operation of the compost plant and such costs as may be incurred in the removal of the compost plant. 2. To pay to the City the increased costs incurred by the City for its sewage and refuse disposal services resulting from the City's obligations under this agreement and such costs as may be incurred by the City pursuant to para- graph V, section A, subsection 10, if such increased costs are substantiated by actual cost data submitted by the City. 3. To conduct health-oriented studies, research, investigations and experi- ments relating to: (a) the composting process and the compost produced, and (b) the efficient ~nd economic operation of the compost plant. VI. The parties hereto further mutually agree: A. That the compost plant. will be located on a ten acre site adjacent to the City sewage treatment works near Johnson City, Tennessee, which site is more particularly described in appendix "A" hereof. B. That this agreement may be terminated by mutual agreement of all parties hereto, or upon 180 days notice by PHS and TVA to the City of the intention of PHS and TVA to terminate this agreement. 0. That the project shall be referred to in all publications, press releases, signs, etc. as a "Joint U.S. Public Health Service-Tennessee Valley Authority Composti.ng Project, Johnson City, Tennessee." D. That all funds expended by the City in connection wi:th this project will be accounted for in such a manner as deemed necessary by Federal auditors. E. That obligations assumed hereunder shall be subject to the availability of funds for such purposes. F. That the terms and conditions herein set forth, may, at any time here- under be changed or modified by supplemental agreement with mutual con- sent of the parties concerned. G. That the data collected will be the property of and will be used as deemed appropriate by PHS and TVA. All proposed publications by parties hereto of the data, or evaluations thereof developed in this project will be transmitted to the other parties hereto for review and comment a reasonable period of time in advance of proposed publication data. PAGENO="0111" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 711 H. That the City relinquishes title and interest in any refuse and siudge and products thereof, when such refuse and sludge are accepted by PUS and TVA at the compost plant, and all such materials when accepted shall be and become the property of the United States. VII. PUS representative and project supervisor: Mr. Wesley E. Gilbertsofl, Chief, Office of Solid Wastes, EU, PSS, PUS, DHEW. TVA representative: Dr. 0. M. Derryberry, Director of Health, Tennessee Valley Authority. City representative: Mr. D. A. Burkhalter, City Manager, City of Johnson City, Tenn. EDWARD N. BACKU5, Mayor, City of Johnson City, Tenn. Dr. 0. M. DERRYBKRRY, Director of Health, Tennessee Valley Authority. LEO J. GEmuG, (For Dr. William H. Stewart, Surgeon General, Public Health Service). Question 6: What research and development work is currently being pnrsued with HEW support on the creation of an "early warning sys- tem" to provide notice of potential hazards of pollution before they become acute Y Answer: 1. Research and development work currently being pur- sued with HEW support on the creation of "early warning systems" to provide notice of potential hazards of pollution before they become acute: A. National air pollution potential research and advisory service (Project B-5-7). The object of this research is to develop and place in routine operation an objective, quantitative air pol1utiox~ potential forecast service for the conterminous United States. Research effort is directed toward developing an objective computer technique which will provide forecasts of air pollution potential which are of equal quality to forecasts of air pollution potential now provided through application of a quasi-objective prediction technique by meteorologists of the Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences, U.S. Public Health Service. Upon development of a satisfactory computer tech- nique, responsibility for the Advisory Service will be assigned to the National Meteorological Center (Environmental Science Services Ad- ministration). Efforts to develop quantitative air pollution potential forecasts will be accelerated when the objective technique for delin- eating areas of high air pollution potential has become established. A quasi-objective technique for forecasting areas of high air pollution potential is in daily use. A national advisory service disseminating these forecasts to interested parties, both public and private, has been in operation for several years. B. Local air pollution forecasting research (Project B-5-8). The object of this research is to devise or derive techniques and method- ologies which will enable air pollutant concentrations to be forecast on local (urban) scales, up to 24 to 36 hours in advance, with practical precision. Models of atmospheric dispersion over urban areas are being validated through the use of observed (historical) meteorologi- cal parameters and pollutant concentrations. When a model is vali- dated as sufficiently accurate, experimental forecasts of pollutant con- centrations, based on forecast meteorological parameters and pollutant PAGENO="0112" 712 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT emission values, are tested for accuracy. As necessary, research is con- ducted to develop and improve forecasts of the meteorological param- eters. When the forecasts of pollution concentration attain a suffi- ciently high degree of precision, they will become operational. Urban diffusion models are currently being adapted and validated for New York, N.Y.; St. Louis, Mo.; and Philadelphia, Pa. by a meteorologist located in each city. In addition, Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences staff meteorologists are testing experimental fore- casts of air pollutant concentrations for Cincinnati, Ohio. 2. Current procedures for issuing air pollution potential advisories: Daily air pollution potential forecasts are prepared by Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences meteorologists in Cincinnati, Ohio. Forecasts are based on reports received hourly via teletype from Weather Bureau stations in the United States an4 on numerous analyses and forecasts provided via facsimile by the National Mete- rological Center (NMC) in Suitland, Md. With its electronic. com- puter facilities, the NMC prepares special mixing depth and wind speed data from all upper air observing stations in the United States (about 70 stations). NMC transmits these data to Cincinnati daily at 9: 30 and 10: 30 a.m., EST, for analysis2 interpretation, and inte- gration with other meteorological information. Air pollution poten- tial forecasts based on these data are transmitted daily at 12:20 p.m., EST, to U.S. Weather Bureau stations (approximately 235 stations) via teletype service "C". When meteorological conditions do not warrant issuance of a high pollution potential advisory, the telet~pe message is "none today." When the forecast indicates that an `ad- visory of high air pollution potential should be issued, the message designates the affected areas. The daily message indicates significant changes in the boundaries of advisory areas, including termination of episodes. To be notified of these advisories, interested persons must initiate arrangements with the nearest Weather Bureau station. Once arrangements have been made, the local Weather Bureau office will notify forecast users when their area of interest is included in an advisory. 3. Limitations tG- A. General weather forecasts: It should be noted that the ability to forecast the weather depends critically on the length of time for which the forecast is desired. Weather prediction for air pollution purposes for a matter of minutes to an hour in advance may be high- ly accurate, whereas forecasts many days in advance may be totally inaccurate. The size of the area for which forecasts are made is simi- larly crucial. Predictions for small areas on the order of city blocks presents serious difficulties, but an average forecast for a broad region of many square miles within a city can be made with some com- petence. The conversion of a prediction of conventional weather ele- ments to an air quality forecast introduces an additional measure of uncertainty; a weather forecast can only provide the potential for poi- lution. The location of potential sources, the changes in their emis- sion with time and the changes in pollution characteristics to photo- chemical and other reactions `must also be known to predict the con- centration of a contaminant. PAGENO="0113" ADEQUACY OP TECflNOLOOY FOl~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT 713 B. National air pollution potential advisory service forecasts: The national air pollution potential advisory service conducted by the Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences, U.S. Public Health Service, as noted above provides an advance notification of meteor- ological conditions which may lead to acute levels of air contamination if sources of air pollution are active. The ability to issue advisories for broad regions of the conterminous United States. with a high de- gree of reliability has been demonstrated. Presently advisories are issued for meteorological conditions that extend over large areas for relatively long periods of time.. Under the present system the fore- casts are a qualitative indication of atmospheric conditions and do not provide a quantitative estimate of the air quality that may be as- sociated with these conditions, further the forecasts do not adequately account for the large diurnal variations of dispersion within the ad- visory area. C. Local air pollution forecasts: For each community for which advance prediction of pollution is desired, it is necessary that there be a continually updated emission inventory preferably on a block- by-block and hour-by-hour basis. The larger the smallest unit area and time interval for which emission data is available, the less reliable the results. Each such community must also have available ground level and upper air wind, temperature, and pressure measurements, in- tensive and frequent enough to allow their use for prediction. The less intensive and frequent the coverage, the less reliable the re.sults. Each such community must also have available a mathematical model com- patible with its topography and weather regime and must, have an intensive air quality monitoring network against which to test the accu- racy of prediction of the model. rfllere must be a long enough period of such te.sting to refine the model and develop the correlation between the model and reality. The less intensive the air quality monitoring network, and the shorter the period of refining the. model, the less reliable the results. If the emission inventory, meteorological and air quality measure- ments and mathematical model are all optimized for the community, and if trained-experienced air pollution meteorologists are. available, the capability to predict selected air quality parameters 4 to 12 hours in advance exists with about. the same probabilit.y of error as predict- ing local variations in the weather of the community that far in ad- vance. The success of the mathematical forecasting models depends not only on the accuracy of the analytical expression relating source and diffusion parameters to air concentrations, but also on the accu- racy of the forecasts of the dispersion parameters. "Air pollution forecasting" cannot be separated from weathe.r forecasting in general and improvements in either area will be reflected in the other. Con- siderable effort is presently being expended to improve forecasting techniques in general and specifically in the mesoscale area. To hasten improvements in mesoscale meteorological forecasts, a special commit- mitte has been appointed by the Federal Coordinator for Meteoro- logical Research. 4. Utility of air pollution forecasts systems: The benefits of an air `pollution potential and an air quality forecast system are many but because t.he capacity of the atmosphere'~ to dilute wastes has a finite 68-240 0-66-vol. 11-8 PAGENO="0114" 714 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT upper limit predictions of air pollution potential or air quality cannot be a substitute for controls of air contamination at the source of emis- sion. At times the atmosphere has a diluting ability which is as high as 1,000 times greater than at other times. Therefore the ability to predict with a high degree of confidence can make a significant con- tribution to the amelioration of air pollution problems. Given a satis- factory mathematical model, forecasts of meteorological parameters can be used to delineate the expected spatial extent and duration of critical concentrations of significant pollutants in a community and to forestall the occurrence of "critical" concentrations by alerting the proper control authority to the potential hazard to permit the early reduction or prevention of pollution by selected techniques before undesirable air quality levels are attained. BIBLIOGRAPHY Boettger, C. M., 1961: Air pollution potential east of the Rocky Mountains- Fall 1959. Bulletin, American Meteorological Society, 42, 615-020. Holzworth, 0. C., 1962: A study of air pollution potential for the Western United States. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 1, 366-382. Holzworth, G. C., 1964: Estimates of mean maximum mixing depths in the con- tiguous United States. Monthly Weather Review, 92, 235-242. Holzworth, G. C., 1965: A note on surface wind speed observations. Monthly lVeat her Review, 93, 323-326. Rosier, C. R., 1961: Low-level inversion frequency in the contiguous United States. Monthly Weather Review, 89, 319-339. Hosler, C. R., 1964: Climatologlcal estimates of diffusion conditions in the United States. Nuclear Safety, 5, 184-192. Korshover, J., 1960: Synoptic climatology of stagnating anticyclones east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States for the period 1936-1956. Technical Report A60-7, U.S. Public Health Service, R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Lynn, D. A., B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig, 1964: The November-De- cember 1962 air pollution episode in the Eastern United States. Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-7; 29 pp. Miller, M. E., and L. E. Niemeyer, 1963: Air pollution potential forecasts-a year's experience. Journal Air Pollution Control Association, 13, 205-210. Miller, M. E., 1964: Semi-objective forecasting of atmospheric stagnation in the Western United States. Monthly Weather Review, 92, 23-32. Miller, M. E., and 0. C. Ilolzworth, 1966: An atmospheric diffusion model for metropolitan areas. Presented at the 59th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, San Francisco, California; June 20-24, 1966. Niemeyer, L. E., 1960: Forecasting air pollution potential. Monthly Weather Review, 88, 88-96. GRANT-SUPPORTED RESEARCH The following research grants currently in progress are concerned with early warning and air pollution forecasting: Ben Davidson, New York University, "Mathematical Models of TYrban Air Pollution Dynamics." The aim of this project is to de- velop and verify numerical models of diffusion which can predict urban air pollution levels on a time scale of an hour and on a space scale of several miles. These models will be capable of application to any city but will be verified specifically for New York City. These models require an input data specification of source strength and meteorological conditions consistent with the time and space scale of the model. The research covers investigation of the source and meteorological conditions in the New York City area as well as meas- PAGENO="0115" ADEQUACY OP TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 715 urement of one or more air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide on a sys- tematic basis. E. Wendell Hewson, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., "Mesoscale Wind Systems Around the Great Lakes." This research is concerned with atmospheric flow patterns around and over the Great Lakes, with attention focused on Lake Michigan in those areas where interurban and interstate transport of air pollution is a major problem. A physical model of a bounded mesoscale lake wind system is being developed. This model is expressed in terms of a set of nonlinear partial differential equations to be solved by numerical methods em- ploying a high capacity hybrid analog-digital computer. The input data is obtained from winter, and summer programs of field observa.- tions `taken over land and water from a headquarters located near Holland, Mich, on the eastern shores of Lake Michigan. The field measurements include: pilot balloon, smoke rocket, and tower observa- tions of winds aloft; tethered balloon and a few airplane observations of temperature and humidity; and tetroon tracking with an M-33 radar for air trajectories. Surface winds are measured and used in conjunction with t.he standard surface and upper winds taken around Lake Michigan. Herbert. Riehi, Colorado State University Research Foundation, Fort Collins, Cob., "A Study of Denver Air Pollution." The project has as its purpose: (a) Description of the life cycle of pollution epi- sodes from onset to termination; (b) analysis of the air motions and the physical principles governing them, which bring about the pollu- tion episodes; and, (c) analysis of sources contributing to the con- tamination. The Denver area is especially suited for these purposes, since the city complex is isolated and hence can be studied as such without references to neighboring pollution sources. Further, impor- tant topograpically induced winds exist which bring out sharply the exchange of air between the city and its environment. `Wesley E. Yates, University of California, Davis, Calif., "Meso Wind Patterns in the Central California Valley." The purpose of this project is to study the meso wind patterns in the Central Cali- fornia Valley from Stockton to just north of Biggs. In addition to proving insight into a complex synoptic situation, this study applies to air pollution forecasting in the region. Sidney R. Frank,.Aerometric Research Foundation, Goleta, Calif., "Analysis of the Marine Layer-A Meso Meteorological Study." The project's specific aim is to define and model the marine layer of the atmosphere in terms of its diffusion and transport characteristics. In order to do this a systematic program has been developed in the Santa Barbara Channel area whereby several interested organizations and agencies have agreed to cooperate in obtaining geophysical data during specific times of the year. This program, called Operation COW (for Cooperative Observational Week), originated in 1961 and con- tinues to operate' 1-week periods during spring, summer, and fall. With the basic parameters that contribute to the definition and modifi- cation of the marine layer being orographic effects, ocean heat sources and sinks and meso-synoptic situations, all participants in Operation COW are equipped to obtain data pertinent to some facet of these parameters. The results of these studies are applicable to air pollu- tion forecasting in this geographic area. PAGENO="0116" 716 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT Victor H. Sussrnan, Division of Air Pollution Control, Harrisburg, Pa., "Air Pollution Forecasting Techniques for Pennsylvania," and, Hans A. Panofsky, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa., "Meteorological Analysis, Pennsylvania Air Quality Data." The purpose of these interrelated projects is to develop a pollution poten- tial forecast method for specific Pennsylvania communities by (a) se- lecting areas having varying topography, industrial and population density, and meteorology; (b) obtaining air quality and meteorologi- cal data; and then (c) developing a pollution potential forecasting procedure for the specific area. The areas studied are the Allentown- Bethlehem, Greater Johnstown, and Greater Erie regions. Question 7: What research 28 beina conducted for the develovment of additional technuiues of the social sciences so as to better vrevare the public for the efforts and costs involved in pollution abatenientf Answer: Efforts to build wide public appreciation of the problem of air pollution and public acceptance of governmental and other pro-S grams to deal with it have been an integral part ofthe Federal air pollution program ever since its establishment in 1955. These efforts have proceeded along two major pathways: information and educa- tion activities designed to give the American people easy access to the facts they need in order to understand the air pollution problem and research in the social sciences to develop improved ways of com- municating with the public on the subject of air pollution. In the area of information and education activities, the Division of Air Pollution conducts a comprehensive program utilizing all of the major methods of communication with the press and the public. In addition, the Federal program serves as a source of informational materials and professional guidance to other agencies and organiza- tions, including State and local governmental control agencies. Federal efforts to increase public awareness of the air pollution prob- lem `have indeed been productive. A decade ago, term air pollution was almost unknown, even to persons actively concerned with con- temporary affairs; in contrast, air pollution is now widely recognized as a major national problem, though its full dimensions are not as widely appreciated or well understood. The effect of two National Conferences on Air Pollution, both held under the auspices of the Federal program, has been to give the American people unique opportunities to acquire some basic facts about the nature and damaging effects of air pollution and the exist- ence of techniques for bringing it under control. A third such con- ference has been called by Secretary of Health, Education, and Wel- fare John W. Gardner and will be held December 12-14, 1966, in Washington, D.C. Invited participants will include governmental officials, scientists, leaders of business and industry, and representa- tives of the public. The Federal air pollution information program has assisted in the planning and production of some 50 local and national television broadcasts in which graphic and compelling facts about air pollu- tion-both nationally and in specific communities-have been pre- sented to millions of people. Two new programs concerned with air pollution, both prepared with assistance from the Division of Air Pollution, are scheduled for national network showing in September 1966. PAGENO="0117" ADEQUACY OF TECTThTOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 717 As a source of informational materials, the Federal program has played a particularly important role in maintaining communications between experts in the air pollution field and the general public. The distribution of hundreds of thousands of publications has given the public access to information about air pollution which would otherwise have been almost unavailable. The Federal information program is also actively involved in assist. ing nongovernmental groups in developing and carrying on programs designed to build greater public understanding of air pollution and its prevention and control. In recent years, the number and range of groups engaged in such activity ha's increased substantially. Among the national organizations involved in air pollution activities are the National Tuberculosis Association, the General Federation of Wom- en's Clubs, and the National Council of State Garden Clubs. A num- ber of scientific groups, `such as the Scientists' Institute for Public Information, and many professional societies are giving increasing attention to air pollution. Various quasi-official organizations are using their influence to help promote effective control of air pollution; among them are the Conference of Mayors, the American Municipal Association, and the National Association of County Officials. *To a very substantial degree, many of these groups rely on the Federal information program for guidance and materials. In the area of social science research, the major emphasis has been on surveys of public perception and understanding of community air pollution problems and public attitudes `toward such problems. In particular, such surveys have been conducted with support from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in Clarkston, Wash.; Los Angeles, Calif.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and St. Louis, Mo. One of the basic findings in these surveys has been that people generally classify air pollution as a problem roughly equivalent in magnitude to such other and perhaps more publicized problems as poverty, racial con- flicts, and inadequate educational facilities. In New York City, a survey taken in 1965 for a private company indicated that people considered air pollution the third most serious problem facing the community. Air pollution was listed below juvenile delinquency and traffic and ahead of such problems as un- employment, racial difficulties, and inadequacy of recreational, trans- portation, and educational facilities. In similar surveys conducted in Buffalo, N.Y., during 1959 and 1962 by the New York State Air Pollution Control Board, air pollution was listed as the fourth most serious local problem. There is unquestionably a need for continued research in this area to identify the factors that influence public attitudes toward air pollution and to determine how the techniques of the social sciences can most effectively be used to stimulate public support of control efforts. A number of relevant studies are now being carried on with support in the form of research grants from the Division of Air Pollution. One such study, being conducted by Dr. Robert E. Rankin, associate professor of psychology at the University of West Virginia, concerns air pollution and the community image. This research is being con- ducted in the Kanawha Valley area around Charleston, W. Va. It is designed to assess the role air pollution plays in the public image PAGENO="0118" 718 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT of a community as a place to live and work, the conception the public has of air pollution in its community and what can be done to control it, and personal attitudes and characteristics which may influence people's attitudes toward air pollution. Another grant-supported study of public attitudes toward one type of air pollution, effluent from kraft pulpmills, is being conducted by Dr. Donald F. Adams, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. The purposes of this study include clarification of the odor detection threshold concentrations for the major constituents of the gaseous emissions from kraft pulpmills, definition of an "objectionability" threshold as a minimum concentration of these compounds which will elicit an unpleasant response, evaluation of the responses of a cross- section of the population to kraft mill-type odors, and separation of the influence of sex, age, smoking habits, place of residence, occupa- tion, and so forth, upon repcrted thresholds of detection and objection- ability. In the area of public information, Dr. Murdock Head, director of the Airlie Center, George Washington University, Warrenton, Va., is receiving grant support for a project entitled "Audiovisual Methods for Air Pollution Information." This is a 3-year research project for the evaluation of present methods of audiovisual dissemination of information in the field of air pollution and development of new techniques. A series of six 20-minute color films are being developed as part of the project. Three new grant applications in the social-political area are under consideration: Michael E. Eckstein, New School for Social Research, New York, N.Y., "Organization Factors in Air Pollution Control." This application was approved by the June 1966 National Advis- ory Environmental Health Council and is awaiting payment. It is proposed to study the relationships between and among units of government, public agencies, public and private organizations, and citizens groups in ,a metropolitan region (New York) which have some responsibility or concern for air pollution. Leslie P. Singer, Gary urban research, "The Cost of Air Pol- lution to a Community," to be reviewed by the November 1966 NAEHC. Peter C. Rydell, assistant professor of urban planning, Urban Research Center, Hunt.er College, New York, and Benjamin H. Stevens, president, Regional Science Research Institute. Philadel- phia, "Effects of Air Pollution on Optimal Urban Form," to be reviewed by the November 1966 NAEHC. Despite an obvious and growing need, there is almost no research underway relating to the need to prepare the public for the increased national effort that will .be required to meet the solid waste problem. One research project being supporthd by a grant from the Office of Solid Wastes, grant No. R01-SW_-00003, is concerned with public attitudes as part of a comprehensive study of the application of sys- tems analysis techniques to solid waste management. The Office of Solid Wastes, through State planning grants, demon- stration grants, study and investigation grants, and research contracts will seek to encourage needed research in the social sciences in order to provide a better basis than `is now available for gaining public PAGENO="0119" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 719 understanding and support of programs for the control of the solid waste management problem. Question 8: What re~search and development work is considered de- sirable to solve the increasing problem of disposable packaging and container material while at the same time giving consideration to the values of convenience of such packaging and container material to our societyP Answer: Several areas need to be investigated in detail to identify the critical factors involved in dealing with the disposable packaging and container material problem that is accentuated by industry's ef- forts to increase consumer convenience. Technical and economic studies should be carried out to determine the "total" costs involved in the use of alternate packaging materials. It seems fairly obvious that the indirect or hidden costs to the consumer, or more broadly the costs to society, of using packaging materials that are difficult or hazardous to dispose of is not being considered by manufacturers. Research and development work is needed to make commercially available soluble or biodegradable packaging materials, such as the newly developed "water soluble" paper. Additional developmental work is needed to establish reasonable limits on the minimum product payload for many types of consumer products. Since many products have traditionally been marketed in in bulky packaging that contains relatively little of the product destined for the consumer's use, there would seem to be a legitimate need for research and development efforts to devise packaging that satisfies the seller's requirements to compete in the marketplace through attractive presentation of his wares but also keeps to the practical minimum the amount of waste which the consumer has to dispose of in the form of packaging or wrapping materials. The feasibility of legal restrictions or economic incentives governing or influencing the use of nonreturnable containers requires consider- able study, particularly with respect to containers whose disposal may be hazardous. The cost of returning insecticide drums, for example, may actually be considerably less than the cost of their disposal. Question 9: How can Federal research and development be used to overcome "the planned obsolescence" feature of our economy in order to promote improved waste management procedures P Answer: The subject of planned obsolescence, as it related to solid waste management, to economics, to public attitudes, and to conserva- tion-and this is only a partial list of the research and development areas that are applicable-raises questions which the Nation has barely begun to recognize, let alone attempt to answer. If viewed only from the standpoint of the control of sOlid wastes, planned obsolescence is an area in which the Federal Government could well make a sub- stantial research and development investment. However, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to separate the many interrelated factors involved in planned obsolescence, factors, including the labor market, consumer buying practices, utilization of natural and manmade resources, and others which bear only tangentially on the technology of solid waste disposal. Although not specifically a research and development undertaking, the Federal Government could devise and apply specifications for many PAGENO="0120" 720 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT of the products and materials purchased by the General Services Ad- ministration which would motivate manufacturers to develop and produce goods with a usable lifespan longer than that now considered normal or acceptable. As has often been the case in the past, GSA specifications tend to influence design specifications for whole segments of industry. It should be pointed out here that increased durability of such goods as electronic parts and equipment and packaging ma- terials is not primarily a technical problem, since industry now has the capability to produce `such materials having a much greater useful life than those now made generally available to the buying public. Electric light bulbs are a case in point. The question of increased durability is, of course, closely tied to the national norm of high rates of consumption, and this, in turn, is a factor of great importance to the economic vitality of the Nation. However, two points are important here. The economic vitality `based on high production and consumption rates is a short-term vitality, which fails to take into `consideration the long-term economic factor of conservation of natural resources, particularly mineral resources. It would seem very important. in the national interest for the Federal Government to increase substantially its research and development efforts relating to the economics of conservation. And into this pic- ture must be fitted the question of social cost. Does it cost society more to enjoy the abundance and convenience of high consumption rates, while disregarding the long-term `costs involved in depleting resources and in adding to the waste disposal burden? A second important point on which relatively little research has been carried out is the question of the long-term effect on the labor force of a shift from a philosophy of planned obsolescence to one of reduced production of more durable and serviceable commodities. To what extent could high rates of employment be maintained in an econ- omy geared more to the production and use of long-lasting products than to replacement. of items whose obsolescence is a function of the marketplace? In any event, more information clearly is needed to reveal the costs to society of a shift away from planned obsolescence. It seems reasonable to assume that if an automobile, were made to last three times as long as it. does today, in other words if it were not designed, engineered, and advertised into premature. obsolescence, society would benefit, even if that automobile cost three times as much as today's car. Society would benefit by avoiding the costs an'd the hazards in- volved in disposing of a product three times as often as necessary. It would benefit by the conservation of natural resources. And it would benefit through the development of new employment fields to expand a labor market now threatened by automation. Many Federal departments and agencies either now have or could have a direct interest in problems associated with planned obsolescence. `rhe Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare, Commerce, the Treasury, Labor, Agriculture, the Interior, Defense, and agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission, the General Services Admin- istration, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration all could become more involved in research and development in this field. Although partly a technological problem, planned obsolescence involves social and economic factors that have not been thoroughy PAGENO="0121" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 721 investigated and are not well understood. There is no question that the Federal Government, at lea~t initially, will have to take a leading role in the conduct and support of this kind of research, since indus- try has demonstrated little interest in it, other than that motivated by short-term economic interests. Hopefully, after the Federal Gov- ernment began to place needed emphasis on this type of research and development and the public became aware of where its interests lay, industry would join in the national effort to help resolve the solid waste disposal problem by reducing the volume of consumer materials to be disposed of. Question 10: What is the strategy used for planning and program- ing for research and development and pollution abatement insofar as they affect the interdependencies in the environment? Is the Na- tional Science Foundation kept continuously advised of gaps and needs in technical knowledge? Are urban renewal activities coordi- nated with pollution research and development programs? What systems analysis techniques are being used to give proper considera- tion to all forms of pollution in a given area? What coordination is effected, for example, with the Corps of Engineers in the disposal of polluted material dredged from rivers and harbors? Answer: A summary of the ways in which the Division of Air Pollu- tion coordinates its activities with those of other Federal agencies is provided under the reply to question 5. I The challenge of dealing with problems of environmental coñ- tamination clearly requires a high degree of coordination among all those Government agencies which share in the responsibility for preventing and controlling such problems. There is a need for co- ordination with respect to planning and policymaking as well as day-to-day management and operation of pollution research and con- trol activities. As yet, arrangements to meet this need have not b~en fully developed, either at the Federal level or at State and local levels. One of the most important reasons why a high level of coordination is necessary in this field is that many contaminants of the modern environment reach man not through air or water or food alone, but through all of theses and often through occupational exposures, as well. Because the basis for concern about such contaminants is their potential hazard to public health, governmental agencies with re- sponsibility and experience in the health field should logically be assuming leadership in assessing these problems and dealing with them. On the Federal level, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is taking steps to permit a broader and more comprehensive attack on environmental contamination problems than has even been undertaken before. One of the principal steps, being taken as part of a reorganization of the Public Health Service, is the creation of a new Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control. This new component will coordinate research activities carried on by vari- ous Public Health Service units concerned with the separate segments of the total problem of environmental contamination, insofar as those activities relate to contaminants which may reach man through more than one environmental vector. The units involved include the Divi- sion of Air Polution, the Division of Radiological Health, the Office of PAGENO="0122" 722 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABAPEMENT Pesticides, the Office of Solid Wastes, the Division of Occupational Health, and a new unit which will be concerned with the health as- pects of water pollution. In addition to its responsibility for coordination within the environ- mental pollution programs of the Public Health Service, the new Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control will be assigned responsibilit.y for such activities as liaison with the National Institutes of Health to assure that their in-house and grant-supported research projects are evaluated in relation to problems of environ- mental contamination and coordination with other Federal agencies and industry in areas of research in which the Public Health Service cannot effectively work alone. The need for coordination of activities in environmental pollution control extends to State and local levels of government, as well. This need is twofold. In the first place, State and local governments bear a major share of the responsibility for setting and enforcing pollution control regulations. For this responsibility to be effectively dis- charged, there must be cooperation and coordination among State and local agencies which administer programs concerned with the various aspects of environmental contamination. Too often, responsibility in this field is fragmented among many agencies, which often find them- selves competing with one another for funds, personnel, and support from elected officials. The second respect~ in which coordination is essential to prevent and control pollution in the Nation's cities and States arises from the fact that municipal, county, and State governments carry on many other activities which may contribute to such pollution. As an example, the frequent lack of adequate coordination between local agencies responsible for collection and disposal of solid wastes and those respon- sible for pollution control often results in needless air, water, or soil pollution problems. Other examples of State and local activities which have an important bearing on pollution problems include deci- sions on the construction and location of highways, urban planning, and zoning programs, and the establishment and application of regu- lations concerning construction of new industrial installations. In these and many other instances of activity at the State and local levels of government, adequate communication and coordination can often prevent new pollution problems from developing, usually at a far lower cost to government, industry, and the public than would be in- volved in later abatement measures. The formal technique used for planning and programing to insure proper research coordination among the several agencies and programs concerned with pollution abatement is the program planning and budgeting system recently instituted by the Bureau of the Budget. The PPB system, which is essentially an information system to help management~ make major decisions, facilitates examination of pro- gram objectives and of alternative ways of achieving objectives. In addition to the program planning and budgeting system, the less formal approaches, such as conferences, technical reports, and work- ing coffimittees, provide planning and programing coordination among the programs concerned with pollution control and abatement. The National Science Foundation receives general program and budgeting information from the solid waste disposal program. In- PAGENO="0123" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 723 formation on research projects being supported also is regularly re- ported to the National Science Foundation through the science infor- mation exchange reporting system. Current practices in urban renewal activities often fail to take into account pollution abatement factors aud environmental quality protection. The Office of Solid Wastes has initiated discussions with the Department of Housing and Urban Development principally regarding coordination of statewide planning activities and it is an- ticipated that these discussions can and will be broadened to include urban renewal activities. The basic legislation for the solid waste program requires proper and careful consideration of the total problem of pollution of the en- vironment. Accordingly, the Office of Solid Wastes has established an Operations Research Unit `and is supporting research projects to develop and expand the use of systems analysis techniques for the solution of environmental pollution problems. Coordination to resolve specific solid waste disposal problems en- countered by other Federal agencies at Government facilities is being coordinated through cooperative arrangements. Solid waste disposal problems' encountered by other Federal agencies and programs in the conduct of their activities are resolved generally on an ad hoc basis. Question 11: Please summarize qualitatively the current backlog of proposals from both industry and universities for the undertaking of research and development in pollution abatement. What would your annual budget requirement be if all desirable proposals were accepted? Answer: The Division of Air Pollution has a backlog of research proposals in the sense that funds are not currently available to support the proposed projects-currently amounting to several million dollars. In addition, there is a backlog of comparable magnitude consisting of proposals initiated by the Division staff. Approximately half of these proposals are in engineering and `the physical sciences and are con- cerned in large part with technology for the identification, measure- ment, analysis, and control of pollutant emissions. Another `large group of pending proposals is in the area of medical and biological research concerning the effects of air pollution on health. Most of the engineering research is proposed for funding by contracts with indus- try, while most of the research in other areas would be carried out by universities. Currently there are 10 approved but unfunded research grants in solid waste totaling $431,472. These proposals include projects on utilization of compost as a soil conditioner, pipe transport of solid waste materials, and chemical conversion of solid waste components, as well as other promising and important areas needing additional scientific investigation. High priority unfunded contract proposals received by the Office of Solid Wastes exceeded the funds available for contracts by approxi- mately $750,000. These proposals included: studies of the economics of solid waste disposal; investigation of the feasibility of using exist- ing transportation systems on a regional basis; systems analysis to improve solid waste management; studies of new and improved re- duction facilities; incinerator energy utilization; and health investi- gations. PAGENO="0124" 724 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT As funds available for solid waste research and development activ- ities increase, it is reasonable to anticipate that the number of meri- torious research proposals also will increase. It, therefore, is not possible to estimate what level of funding, if any, would be sufficient to permit support of all such proposals. The authorization for future appropriations in the Solid Waste Disposal Act makes allowance for increased support of research and development activities. However, this expansion will not permit Federal funding of all desirable re- search and development in the solid waste field. PAGENO="0125" RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS OP THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RE- SEARCH~ AND DEVELOPMENT BY THE FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION Question 1: What does the Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- ministration believe should be the goal of water pollution a7~atement? What should be the timetable for reaching this goal? Answer: The long-range goal of the Federal water pollution con- trol program is to control and prevent pollution to assure an adequate supply of water suitable in quality for public and industrial water supplies, propagation of fish and aquatic life, wildlife, recreation. agriculture, and other legitimate uses. A greatly stepped-up pollution control effort will be required to meet this goal, both by upgrading water quality condition of presenti polluted waters and by protecting waters which are still of hig quality. While remedial schedules have been developed for many rivers, it is difficult to give a precise timetable for the Nation as a whole. Attain- ing the long-range goal will require overcoming the large existing backlog of unmet waste treatment needs resulting from years of ne- glect. The rate at which the backlog can be overcome will be de- pendent in large part on the nature and extent of Federal financial support. This issue is under consideration in legislation currently before the Congress. In addition to overcoming the backlog of treatment needs, a rate of waste treatment works construction necessary to keep pace with popu- lation and industrial growth, urbanization, and obsolescence of exist- ing facilities must be maintained. An accelerated research and devel- opment program will also be required to develop new and improved technology and to cope with new and emerging pollution problems. This improved technology must then be put into widespread practice. In addition, new basin planning and development, personnel training, and other related programs must be involved in the pollution-control effort. The goal of pollution control is a continuous one, therefore it cannot be achieved on a "one-shot" basis. However, the Federal Water Pollu- tion Control Administration believes that the Nation can be brought abreast of the problem within the next decade to the point where it can keep pace on a continuous basis. Questions 2 and 3: 2. Please provide a listing of research contracts and grants in the field of water pollution abatement that have been provided by the Public Health Service and the Federal Water Pollu- tion Control Administration within the last several fiscal years under the provisions of section 5 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as amended. Please divide this by category .of contracts versus grants; university in-house effort or other; awl also between basic research, applied research, and development. In addition please di- 725 PAGENO="0126" 726 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT vide this to the extent possible among the general categories referred to in your testimony. To the extent po~isible please provide the esti- mated amounts of funds requested for research in the various cate- gories for the current fiscal year. 3. Please provide a breakdown for the last several fiscal years of in-house expenditures for research and development under section 5of the Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, broken down by the categories used in your statement. If convenient, the answers to ques- tions ~ and 3 may be combined in one tabulation showing the entire research and development program, in detail, for the last several years. Answer: The listings requested are provided in following tables 1-8. Tables 2,4, and 6 cover grants only while tables 1, 3, and 5 relate to our in-house plus contract program. In tables 7 and 8 are detailed breakdowns of in-house and contract effort according to research category. TABLE No. 1.-Federal water pollution research and development by performer [In thousands of dollars} INTRAMURAL AND CONTRACT Fiscal year Federal State labora- md local tories agencies Uni- versi- ties Other non- profits Profit organi- zations Other Total 1964 2,719 1965 2,911 19661 5,604 Subtotal 11,234 1967 1 6, 042 Total 17,276 14 143 318 31 2 206 142 164 21 35 5 2,991 3,233 6,091 475 33 512 61 2, 600 12,315 8, 642 20,957 1 Estimate. TABLE No. 2.-Federal Water Pollution Control Administration re- search and development by research performer-Research and demonstration grants, fiscal years 1964-67 Year Federal ~abora- tories State and local agencies Universities Other nonprofits rrofits or~aniza. Other Total tions 1964 1965 1966 1967 estimate 0 0 0 0 128, 000 701, 000 1, 385, 000 1, 870, 000 4, 454, 000 5, 291, 000 5, 993, 000 6, 634, 000 225, 000 295, 000 797, 000 978, 000 33, 000 14, 000 4, 854, 000 0 17, 000 6, 304, 000 035, 000 8, 210, 000 0 37, 000 9, 519, 000 PAGENO="0127" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 727 TABLE No. 3.-Federal water pollution research and development by type of research [In thousands of dollars] INTRAMURAL AND CONTRACT Fiscal year Basic Applied Develop- ment Total 1964 1965 1966 1 Subtotal 1967' Total 153 219 248 2,651 2,774 4, 103 187 240 1, 740 2,991 3,233 6, 091 620 500 9, 528 5,382 2, 167 2,760 12, 315 8,642 1, 120 14, 910 4, 927 20, 957 1 Estimate. TABLE No. 4.-Federal Water Pollution Control Administration basic research, applied research and development-Research and demon- stration grants, fiscal years 1964-67 Year Basic research Applied research Development Total 1964 1965 1966 1967 estimate 2,320,000 2,819,000 1,306,000 1, 399, 000 1,895,000 2,320,000 4,739,000 5, 071, 000 639,000 1, 165, 000 2,165,000 3, 049, 000 4,854,000 6,304,000 8,210,000 9, 519, 000 TABLE No. 5.-Federal water pollution research and development by CO WRR category [In thousands of dollars] CATEGORY V. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION-INTRA- MURAL AND CONTRACT Fiscal year A B C D E F G Total 1964 1965 1966' Subtotal 1967' Total 269 777 829 219 240 780 692 520 600 1,354 1,183 3,492 163 173 130 226 280 70 68 60 190 2,991 3,233 6,091 1,875 1,190 1,239 990 1,812 1,523 6,029 4,300 466 300 576 100 318 239 12,315 8,642 3,065 2,229 3,335 10,329 766 676 557 20,957 `Estimate. NOTE.- Subcategory A equalsidentification ofpollutants. Subeategory B equals sources of pollution. Subcategory C equals effects of pollution. Subcategory D equals waste treatment process. Subcategory E equals ultimate disposal of wastes. Subcategory F equals water trettment. Subcategory G equals water quality control. PAGENO="0128" 728 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT TABLE No. 6.-Federal Water Pollution Control Administration e~xi- penditures by research category (Breakout according to the Com- mittee on Water Resources Research of the Federal Council for Science and Technology) -Research and demonstration grants, fiscal years 1964-67 I. NATURE OF WATER-NONE II. WATER CYCLE [In thousands of dollars] F Groundwater G. Lakes 1964 - 1965 1966 Total - 1967, estimate 22 26 23 22 27 39 73 25 88 42 III. WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION AND CONSERVATION C. Waste water reclamation D. Use of water of Impaired quality 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967, estimate 23 28 67 0 0 48 118 78 48 55 IV. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL-NONE PAGENO="0129" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 729 TABLE No. 6.-Federal Water Pollution Control Administration ex- penditures by research category (Breakout according to the Com~- `imittee on Water Resources Research by the Federal Council for Science and Technology)-Research and demonstration grants, fiscal years 1964-67-Continued V. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION A. Identification of pollutants B. Source of pollution C. Effects of pollution ~1964 1965 1966 Total 1967, estimate 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967, estimate 339 401 453 851 1, 036 1, 116 1, 304 1, 422 2, 216 1, 193 491 3, 003 1, 228 5, 042 2, 314 D. Waste treatment process 1, 387 2, 331 2, 922 6, 640 3, 566 F. Water treatment G. Water quality control 268 339 312 384 266 290 846 * 1, 013 314 310 VI. WATER RESOURCES PLANNING A. Techniques of B. Evaluation E. Water law planning process 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967, estimate 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967, estimate 53 64 303 54 65 435 40 23 0 420 539 554 539 63 ~ F. Nonstructural alternatives G. Ecological im- pact of water development 117 153 0 40 0 0 270 0 40 0 6~24Q O-6'G--voL II-9 PAGENO="0130" 730 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT TABLE No. 6.-Federal Water Pollution Control Admini8tration ex- pendituree by re$earch category (Breakout according to the Con'&- mittee on Water Re8ource$ Reeearch by the Federal Council for Science and Techrtology)-Re$earch and *den'ton8tration grant$, flecal years 1964-67-Continued VII. RESOURCE DATA C. Evaluation, processing and publication 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967 estimate 15 17 17 49 18 VIII. ENGINEERING WORKS A. Design 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967 estimate 0 15 15 30 0 IX. MANPOWER, GRANTS, AND FACILITIES A. Education-Extramural Training grants Research fellowship 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967 estimate Total: 1964 1965 1966 Total 1967 estimate 2, 016 2, 000 2, 500 - 6, 516 2, 910 472 617 710 1,799 633 2, 488 2, 617 3,210 . 8,315 3, 543 PAGENO="0131" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 731 TABLE No. 7.-Federal water pollution research and development by * COWl?!? category CATEGORY V. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION INTRAMURAL ONLY [N0TE.-Subcategory A-Identification of pollutants; subcategory B-Sources of pollution; subcategory C-Effects of pollution; subcategory D-Waste treatment process; subcategory E-Ultimate disposal of wastes; subcategory F-Water treatment; subcategory G-Water quality control.] [In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year A B C D E F G Total 1964 1965 19661 Subtotal 1967' Total 269 777 829 170 240 780 678 520 563 1,182 1,032 2,066 163 173 108 224 280 70 33 55 190 2,719 3,077 4,606 1,875 1,100 1,190 1,000 1,761 1,200 4,280 2,300 444 200 574 100 278 200 10,402 6,100 2,975 2,190 2,961 6,580 644 674 478 16,502 `Estimate. TABLE No. 8.-Federal water pollution research and development by COW!?!? category CATEGORY V. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION CONTRACTS ONLY [N0TE.-Subcategory A-Identification of pollutants; subcategory B-Sources of pollution; subcategory C-Effects of pollution; subcategory D-Waste treatment process; subcategory E-Ultimate disposal of wastes; subcategory F-Water treatment; subcategory 0-Water quality control.] [In thousands of dollars] Fiscal year A B C D E F G Total 1964 1965 1966' Subtotal 1967' Total 0 0 0 49 0 0 14 0 37 172 151 1,426 0 0 22 2 0 0 35 5 0 272 156 485 0 100 49 0 51 300 1,749 2,000 22 100 2 0 40 100 1,913 2,600 100 49 351 3,749 122 2 140 4,51~3 `Estimate. PAGENO="0132" 732 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Question 4: Give a tabulation showing the budget requests for p01- lution abatement research and for construction grants and the appro- priations and expenditures for the past several fiscal years. Answer: The requested tabulation follows: FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION Grants for waste treatment works construction and sewer overflow control Estimate to Congress Appropriation Expenditures 1 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 Supplemental 1967 $80, 000, 000 90, 000, 000 100, 000, 000 93,000,000 100,000,000 50, 000, 000 173,000,000 $80, 000, 000 90, 000, 000 90, 000, 000 93,000,000 91,000,000 50, 000, 000 2173,000,000 $64, 509, 835 92, 228, 028 85, 427, 169 84,523,492 1 f ~" `fl" WATER SUPPLY AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 $3,423,000 2,376,000 3,207,000 3,160,000 5,557,000 $2,423,000 2,867,000 3,284,000 3,160,000 ~5, 657, 000 $2,128,157 2,843,496 3,283,697 3,067,155 4,074,899 1967 8,691,000 2 8,691,000 1 Obligations-Amounts for grants for waste treatment works construction and sewer overflow represent Federal share and may exceed appropriation because of carryover of previous years funds. 2 Passed by House, still pending in Senate. 3 Includes $1,000,000 still available for obligation and carried into 1967. Question 5: Assuming no budget constraints, how much funds should be provided if the attack on `water pollution is to be car- ried forth at optimum levels. Answer: ~eneralesti'mates of the ~ ~~er pollj~tion vary widely. The Enyironiuental Pollu~on ~ Qf.~ ~r~j't's~cj~ce ~dvisorv Qornmitt~ st~ed in i~r~p,~rt "~storh~g~ theQu~litiy of Our ~ that j~prderIo pro ~ ~co~d~ry~ tr~t~ent of wastes for ~O perc~~.~Lour~ popu~t~on ~197~ ~n exp~n~iture on the order of ~~iUion~of which ~ 6~l fu~s would !~ ~a cons~derab1~ ~ar~t~ wo1il~ be r~uiredr ~ t~e r~o~ No. 1367 on the Federal Water Yo'llutioii Control amend ~nts and j~1ean Rivers Restoration Act of 1966, the d~omm~ee on ~c~W9r~ U.~at~ ~ ,~ev'~lieved t~e cos~~ ~ ~ billio~ Because of this uncer- tainty, the committee directed the Secretary of the Interior to obtain detailed cost estimates for the 5-year period beginning July 1, 1968, for submission to the Congress no later than January 10, 1968. Reasons for wide variation in cost estimates and consequently of amounts of funds required are as follows: PAGENO="0133" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 733 (~) SIZE, Oi~ ~HE BkCKLOG~ In the past, estimates of the backlog of unmet municipal waste treatment needs have been based upon an annual survey made by i~he Conference of State Sanitary Engineers. This year's preliminary report shows a backlog of 5,566 projects at an estimated cost of $2.1 billion. However, it has become increasingly clear that this esti- mate is extremely conservative. For example, the New York State clean waters program has shown a total need for that State alone of $1.7 billion. Among th~ factor~ contributing to the low estimate~ by the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers are the fact that costs of the interceptor s~ewers are included only when they are part of a new treatment plant construction, and the fact that 18 percent of the 5,566 projects included in the annual survey backlog are considered to require only primary treatment. Upgrading of treatment require- ment~s to conform with water quality standards will further add to the cost of eliminating the backlog. For example, if secondary treat- ment is considered necessary for the 18 percent of the projects now estimated to require only primary treatment, this would increase the costs by $506 million. In addition, the need for tertiary treatment will emerge at many locations over the next few years which will further increase costs. (b) COSTS OF REDUCING POLLUTION FROM INDUSTRIAL W~S~E~ Treatment needs for industrial wastes are generally assumed to be at least as great as those for municipal wastes. However, except for information collected in conjunction with specific studies, the amount of industrial wastes entering streams is not accurately known. In addition, industrial wastes may be greatly reduced by in-plant changes that require in some cases a significant modification in industrial proc- essing. Older plants may require addition of waste treatment facili- ties while newer plants with more modern, efficient methods would be able to control pollution without necessarily adding specific devices for waste control. The determination of costs for reducing industrial pollution, therefore, is a very complex one that is not yet readily iden- tifiable in the same way as costs of abating municipal pollution. (C) OTHER FACTORS ~grn~ined se~~: When storms occur, wastes from runoff are com- bined with municipal wastes in sewers with the result that treatment plants are overloaded and must bypass wastes into streams. Separat- ing these wastes requires very high costs and involves disruption of streetS traffic. Estimates of the national cost of separating combined sewers run as high as $30 billion. However, other means of so1v~ng this problem are presently being explored chiefly through a 4-year $80 million program of grants and contracts. 4~riculturak ~va~t~e~ Wastes from nonpoint sources such as agri- cultural fertilizers and pesticides are extremely difficult to control. These wastes have significant impact `on water quality through the in- direct route of causing conditions that enrich waters for algae growth or `through causing fish kills when pesticides build up in body tissues. PAGENO="0134" 734 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Control measures are ~related to land management practices which may contribute to pollution control but are most frequently associated with improved agricultural methods. ~.edimpi~ii-ation: ~Liment produced by soil erosion caused by land runoff from agricultural practices or from removal of cover on water- sheds is a highly significant cause of pollution. Control of pollution from these sources is dependent on land management and not usually directly linked with pollution control expenditures. -t~n~ any ev~nt~ the.a~ount~ of Feder~i1 fnnd~ iweclc~d fir ~n ophmq~i ~olju~ion contrql will be de~~ent upon the pature and extent~ ~~ral financial narticipation. as indicated above. Question 6: Your statement svgçjests t/iat many present water pci- lution problem~s can be alleviated by the application of existing tech- nology and discusses the use of available knowledge to control pollu- tion. In addition to alleviating and controlling pollution, are there any research programs aimed at preventing or eliminating pollution of water resources? Answer: Let me reiterate the fact that much can be accomplished in water polhition control in this country through the increased use of existing waste treatment and control technology. Referring to figure 6 (see p. 743), for example, it can be seen that the nationwide load of BOD pollution from municipal sources alone could be reduced by some 40. percent from the present level through the application of conventional primary-secondary treatment to all municipal discharges. The committee has, of course, already recognized the looming inade- quacy of existing technology (as shown below, BOD discharges will eventually inexorably increase due to expanding population despite the universal application of the most efficient waste treatment processes now available). We, too, have recognized this impending need and, in fact, essentially our entire research program is aimed at "prevent- ing or eliminating pollution." Our Advanced Waste Treatment Branch, for example, has as its ultimate goal the development of "total pollution control" systems capable of completely eliminating pollution from confined, treatable sources such as municipal and industrial outfalls. Such systems would, as a corollary benefit, directly augment agricultural, industrial, recreational, and even municipal supplies through provision of purified water suitable for direct reuse. Our newly formed Pollution Control Technology Branch is directing its efforts toward the discovery and development of techniques to reduce pollution, on a source-by-source basis, to any degree necessary. We are, wherever possible, examining control-at-the-source principles to ehmrnat.e pollution before it is created; acid mine drainage abatement in particular is receiving attention of this sort. We also are investigat- ing methods of environmental treatment to reoxygenate water or to eliminate nuisance algae growths, for example. Questions 7 and 10: 7. Witnesses before this comQwittee are talking in terms of spending $30 billion to separate storm and sanitary sewers, $20 billion to complete municipal sewage treatment and collection works, and an undetermined but substantial amount for treatmI!~nt of industrial wastes. All told this would amount to from $70 to $100 billion. In your statement you pointed out that the techniques pres- ently in use were designed to deal with the problems in existence 40 to 50 years ago when pollution was much less critical. Are these tech- PAGENO="0135" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 735 niques adequate to justify the massive doses of Federal funds that are now being contemplated in the currently proposed amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (S. 2947) `.~ 10. Given the present stated 76 to 90 percent efilcieney of existing complete treatment plants, that is primary plus secondary treatment, do you believe that the best approach to completing the pollution abate- ment job is through an improvement of the secondary treatment plants to increase their effIciency or through the development of tertiary treat- ment plants to take out the balance of pollution that is not handled in present plants~1 Is a massive increase in the construction of present- type plants justified under either alternativeY Answer: My answer to the preceding question provides a partial background for this combined response to questions 7 and 10. Addi- tional background will be found in the following paper, "Solving Our Water Problems-Water Renovation and Reuse," published by the New York Academy of Sciences, which discusses certain aspects of the national water pollution problem and the impact that the applica- tion of emerging advanced waste treatment processes could have on the magnitude of nationwide pollution discharges from municipal outfalls. PAGENO="0136" PAGENO="0137" ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 136, ART. 5 PAGES 131-154 July 8, 1966 Editor-in-Chief Managing Editor EDWARD M. WEYER HURD HUTCHINS Associate Editor JANET SCOLL SOLVING OUR WATER PROBLEMS- WATER RENOVATION AND REUSE LEON W. WEINBERGER, DAVID G. STEPHAN, FRANCIS M. MIDDLETON Federal Water Pollution Control Administration U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Washington, D. C. and Cincinnati, Ohio NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY 737 PAGENO="0138" 738 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT SOLVING OUR WATER PROBLEMS-WATER RENOVATION AND REUSE* Leon W. Weinberger~, David G. Stephan, Francis M. Middleton Federal Water Pollution Control Administration t U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Washington, D. C. and Cincinnati, Ohio Aside from floods, the nation's water problems can be placed in two broad categories: water supply and water pollution. Water resource planning has, historically, been concerned with one or the other of these problems. In brief and very simplified form, the two problem categories are outlined below. The Water Pollution Problem Polluted water was first recognized by its unsightly appearance and dis- agreeable odors. The initial solution was the use of simple gravity clarification and/or screening, by which gross particulate matter was removed from raw waste water as sludge or skimmings. With this "primary" treatment, larger suspended solids could be removed, and the tendency of a stream to become anaerobic or septic could be somewhat reduced. However, lowered levels of dissolved oxygen downstream from waste outfalls remained as the major problem in water pollution. Various types of filters, chemical additives, and even electrochemical techniques were then applied to municipal waste as second-stage or "second- ary" treatment steps. When it became widely recognized that certain waste components accelerated the microbiological use of dissolved oxygen in streams, biological treatment itself became the accepted standard for second- ary treatment. The biological treatment processes used today, such as oxi- dation ponds, trickling filters, and activated sludge, are simply deliberate attempts under controlled conditions to satisfy the biochemical oxygen de- mand (BOD) of a waste prior to its discharge to receiving waters. Up to now, treatment of municipal wastes has been primarily designed to reduce the quantity of suspended, floating, and biochemically oxygen-demanding materials. Efficiently operated primary-secondary plants remove about 90 per cent of these materials and in addition, about 90 per cent of the bacteria, 50 per cent of the total nitrogen (organic plus inorganic), perhaps 20 to 40 per cent of the phosphorus, but only five per cent of the total dissolved matter. However, as civilization changes, so does the nature of water pollution. Suspended solids and BOD are no longer the only measures of waste loads. Other pollutants are of increasing concern: persistent organics, radionuclides, nutrients, inorganic salts, even heat. Even if the real nature of water pollu- tion did not change, our increased understanding of pollutional effects and mechanisms would still alter our recognition of "what is pollution?" It Is *Thjs paper was presented at a meeting of the Division of Engineering on December 8, 1965 at the New York Academy of Sciences. ~The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration was created on December 31, 1965; previously it was the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control of the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. PAGENO="0139" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 739 easy, therefore, to recognize that the present-day technology of waste treat- ment will not be adequate to meet the challenge of the future. With respect to BOD alone, the generally-attainable 85 to 90 per cent removal efficiency will not prevent some streams from being overwhelmed by oxygen-demanding pollution within the foreseeable future. Even now, a relatively small but increasing number of our streams (FIGURE 1)1 have al- ready reached the stage where complete primary-secondary treatment is being applied to every municipal discharge. (Industrial discharges are not considered here because comprehensive data are not available.) In a much larger number of cases (FIGURE 2)1 90 per cent of the volume of municipal discharges to streams now receives primary-secondary treatment. On the one hand, this is a highly desirable and even comforting picture because it indicates the wide- spread utilization of available technology; on the other hand, in places where serious water pollution now exists or is imminent, what can we do to remedy the situation if the best available conventional treatment is already in use? When considering other gauges of pollution, the picture becomes darker. As an aid to understanding the trend, FIGURES 3, 4, and 5 show the estimated total municipal discharges of phosphates, total nitrogen, and refractory or- ganics released into the nation's waterways during the twentieth century. Refractory organics include organic matter that resists biological degradation either from natural or sewage treatment processes. Phosphates, nitrogen compounds, and refractory organics are of importance because they can cause a variety of pollutional effects, some of which are known and others only suspected. Phosphorus and nitrogen, for example, can act as fertilizers promoting the growth of troublesome algae or other aquatic plants. The pollutional effects of these substances can accelerate the natural aging of lakes, thus causing major ecological changes. Serious taste and odor FIGURE 1. River basins in U.S. for which all municipal discharges have complete primary-secondary treatment. PAGENO="0140" 740 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT FIGURE 2. River basins in U.S. for which more then 90% of all municipal discharges have complete primary-secondary treatment. 0. U) U) .~ o Cl) .~ ~ U) U) Cfl U) 0. C.) z 900 1920 940 960 980 2000 202 FIGURE 3. Estimate outfalls (A.D. 1900-2020), of phosphorus discharges to U.S. streams from municipal PAGENO="0141" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 741 z U) 0 2000 U) .0 C o u, 600 900 920 940 960 1980 2000 FIGURE 4. Estimate of total nitrogen discharges to U.S. streams from municipal outfalls (A.D. 1900-2000). problems can also be created in downstream water supplies, and even sizable "fish kills" may be triggered. The effects of refractory organics on water quality are not as well under- stood. Taste and odor, tainting of fish flesh, foaming, and fish kills have been attributed to such materials. Except for recognized toxicants, the effects of refractory organics on human health, if any, are unknown. Even simple inorganic salts can pollute water if present In sufficient amounts. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards specify that the total dissolved solids (TDS) In a drinking-water supply should not be present In excess of 500 mg./1. Yet each use of a water supply by a municipality adds an increment of 300 to 400 mg./1. of suchsalts to the water. Conventional waste-treatment techniques are virtually ineffective in removing these salts. Deferring for the moment problems arising from treatment-resistant pollutants, what is the future picture of classic BOD pollution? On ~a natkn- wide basis, the changes in municipal BOD load over this century are estimated in FIGURE 6. That portion of the curve between 1900 and 1930 Illustrates the Increasing waste load due to the increasing population at a time when no facil- ities, either for primary or secondary waste treatment, were in common use. In 1930, for example, only about 15 per cent of municipal sewage received primary treatment and less than six per cent received secondary. During the 1930's construction of treatment plants was accelerated, and for the first time in the nation's history, BOD discharges decreased. During World War II discharges sharply increased, while during the postwar years they remained PAGENO="0142" 742 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT >. (n .0 C 0 E (I) 0 C,) ~C') IL ~ cr~ 0. 0 z 2000 FIGURE 5. Estimate of refractory organics discharges to U.S. streams from munici- pal outfalls (A.D. 1900-2000). almost constant. In the next 25 years, if we apply complete primary-secondary treatment to all municipal discharges, the national BOD load from these sources will be reduced by about 40 per cent. From that time on, BOD loads will increase continuously. The graph in FIGURE 6 presents a potentially misleading view because it deals with a nationwide picture, while pollution is a much more "local" phenomenon. However, it is useful in making the following points. First, sub- stantial improvements in pollution control can be achieved simply through the more widespread application of existing waste-treatment technology. Second, from 1990 onward, BOD discharges will inexorably increase due to expanding population despite the universal application of the most efficient waste- treatment processes now available. In fact, by 2015, just 50 years from now, BOD discharges will once again reach the present level and will be increasing by two or three per cent per year thereafter. Clearly, there are other pollut- ants which cannot be treated as effectively as BOD through the use of conven- tional techniques. For these resistant pollutants, there will not be even a temporary reduction in rates of discharge; rather, nationwide loads of these pollutants will increase from this time on, again, despite the universal appli- cation of existing technology (FIGUREs 3-5). 900 920 940 960 980 PAGENO="0143" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 743 U) .0 ~j) 00 w 0 5.0 z FIGURE 6. Estimate of BOD (A.D. 1900-2020). discharges to U.S. streams from municipal outfalls The Water Supply Problem An enormous amount of commentary on the water supply problem has been published in both the popular and the technical press. However, for the pur- poses of this paper, only one or two examples of this problem will be cited. First, it should be very clear to New Yorkers that water shortages occur not only in arid areas but also in water-rich areas of the world such as the eastern coast of the United States. It should also be clear that water supply problems may be more severe in regions of occasional shortage than in regions where such problems are an expected occurrence. Water supply can be a real prob- lem in an area such as New York City, even without a "northeast drought." On Long Island, for example, water is pumpedfrom the ground, and prospects of importing water overland are becoming progressively more difficult and more expensive as the New York City metropolitan area grows and forms an ever-widening barrier to importation. Population, industry, and water demand are growing; ground water levels are falling; and salt water is progressively intruding into the present underground supplies of fresh water. In regard to the nationwide water supply, FIGURE 7 illustrates an estimate of the withdrawal rate of water for various uses as against the nation's de- pendable and developable supply during the twentieth century. This rather oversimplified projection indicates that we have already run out of water. In fact, it indicates we ran out of water in 1957, when our withdrawal of fresh water exceeded our "dependable supply." By 1983, our withdrawal will equal our estimated total developable supply, and we shall really be out of water! 900 920 1940 960 980 2000 2020 PAGENO="0144" 744 ADEQUACY OF TECITNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT FIGURE 7. Estimate of withdrawal rate of water In U.S. for various purposes as against dependable and total developable supplies. (A.D. 1900-2000). In spite of the obvious fallacies in FIGURE 7, it Is amazing how many predictions of water doom are based exactly on this kind of oversimplification. The truth is that our nation as a whole is not running out of water and will not within the reasonably foreseeable future. The simplest explanation is three- faceted: (1) neither our water supply nor our water needs are uniformly dis- tributed geographically; (2) neither our supply nor our demand are uniformly distributed with time; and (3) all water withdrawn and used is not consumed; much of It is returned to our fresh water resources for reuse. Water Pollution and Water Supply, Inseparable Problems Every use of water imposes some change in its quality. These changes, no matter how severe, are Inconsequential if the water is not used further. But, in almost every case, some type of reuse does occur. Water. may be re- used for drinking, or as a habitat for fish and other aquatic life, or merely for aesthetic enjoyment. Reuse and multiple reuse of our water resources are common everyday occurrences. Onthe broadest scale, man has been using and reusing the same volume of water on the earth since Creation; here, purification and reuse occur naturally through the hydrologic cycle. More to the point, reuse occurs quite naturally and unavoidably from city to city and from factory to factory as water flows through our river systems to the ocean. PAGENO="0145" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 745 Recognizing the inevitability of reuse, deteriorations in water quality im- posed by use become significant. If water quality is degraded to the extent that reuse is impossible or inhibited, downstream water supplies are reduced Just as if the water had been consumptively used upstream. Water supply and water pollution, therefore, are closely interconnected. In earlier days, dilution and stream self-purification were relied upon to remedy pollution, and the most readily available or most economical natural fresh waters were tapped as supplies. During this century, biological waste treatment has been used to supplement dilution and self-purification for pollu- tion control, and gradually deteriorating water qualities or more distant sources of water have been accepted for water supplies. Recently, scientists have begun to investigate methods of augmenting natural water supplies, e.g., desalination and weather modification, and have begun to explore new and different techniques of waste treatment. The "Ad- vanced Waste Treatment" (AWT) techniques under investigation range from extensions of biological treatment methods capable of removing nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients to physical-chemical separation techniques such as adsorption, distillation, and reverse osmoSis. These processes can achieve essentially any degree of pollution control desired, and further, as waste ef- fluents are purified to higher and higher degrees by such treatment, the point is reached when effluents become "too good to throw away." Such effluents can and will be deliberately and directly reused for agricultural, industrial, recre- ational, and even municipal purposes. This is true water renovation: the simultaneous alleviation of both water pollution and water supply problems. Water Renovation-Today's Capability Under the 1961 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control of the Public Health Service (now the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration) has con- ducted its Advanced Waste Treatment Research Program. Under this program, about 30 treatment processes are being evaluatedto assess their technical and economic feasibility. Several processes are now available for application; one was recently installed in full-scale municipal service. Several of the processes can even be operated in series under certain circumstances to produce potable water from municipal waste water. For each of these processes, however, some degree of overdesign must still be incorporated to assure reliable per- formance. The higher the potential difficulty or hazard involved in performance failure, the higher the degree of conservatism and overdesign required. The ultimate perfection of these processes to minimize capital expenditures and operating costs must await further full-scale testing and improvements in design, materials, and equipment by consultants and equipment manufacturers. Although it is conceivable that today's conventional processes will be re- placed in the future, for the present, AWT would be applied to the effluent from well-operated, conventional primary_secondary treatment plants. Alum or lime coagulation-sedimentation may be used to increase the removal of suspended solids from the conventionally attainable 90 per cent to a 9~ per cent level and to reduce effluent phosphate concentrations to 1 or 2 mg./l. Coagulation-sedimentation would not be considered as an "advanced" process in water treatment and industrial practice. However, it is included here as an 65-240 O-~&6--voL ii-10 PAGENO="0146" 746 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT advanced process because it is not conventionally applied to the treatment of municipal waste effluents and because the efficient removal of suspended and even colloidal solids is a necessary pretreatment for many of the other ad- vanced processes. Assuming a good quality secondary effluent, 50-100 mg./l. of alum or perhaps 200-300 mg./l. of lime are required to remove suspended and col- loidal solids and phosphates. Standard water treatment flocculation tanks and sedimentation basins would be used. The capital cost for this type of treatment will be less than $.10/daily gallon capacity for plants of the 10-20 mIllion- gallon-per-day scale and about $.05/daily gallon capacity for 100 mgd plants. Operating costs, including capital amortization at 6 per cent interest for 20 years, will be about $.08/1,000 gallons at 10-20 mgd and $.05/1,000 gallons at 100 mgd exclusive of sludge disposal. After removal of colloidal and suspended solids, the soluble refractory organics may be very efficiently removed by contact with activated carbon granules. Such carbon will adsorb up to 20-30 per cent of its own weight in mixed organics from waste water when used in counter-current flow fixed-bed contactors. At a mass velocity of 7 gal./min-ft.2 and a contact time of 40 minutes, more than 98 per cent of both BOD and total organic matter will be removed. To minimize cost, the activated carbon should be regenerated and reused. Fortunately, thermal regeneration of activated carbon following satura- tion with actual waste organics has been possible. A series of 15 successive saturation-regeneration cycles were performed with satisfactory regeneration efficiencies. This process Is being studied in a 300,000 gallon-per-day pilot plant at Pomona, California, under a joint research project of the FWPCA and the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts. The process also has been used since last summer in actual municipal service in a 2.5 mgd plant of the South Tahoe Public Utility District at Lake Tahoe, California. The capital costs for an adsorption plant of 10-20 mgd capacity should be about $.15/daily gallon capacity and at 100 mgd, about $.09/daily gallon. Op- erating costs, including 20-year capital amortization at 6 per cent interest, should be less than $.1o/i,000 gallons for a 10-20 mgd plant and about $.06/1,000 gallons at the 100 mgd scale. Except for dissolved inorganic salts added during use, municipal waste water subjected to the foregoing treatment procedures in sequence will have been restored to a chemical quality generally comparable to that before use. As stated earlier, the salts added during one pass through a municipal system will normally total about 300-400 mg./l. (TABLE 1). Since many water supplies contain these same dissolved salts at approximately this concentration, one municipal use of water generally doubles the salt content. Fortunately, a single-pass electrodialysis reduces the concentration of dissolved inorganic solids by 40-50 per cent, the same percentage required to remove the incre- ment of mineral pollutants added during use. Extended bench-scale tests and operating pilot-scale studies at 75,000 gpd have established that the power requirements for electrodialysisof municipal waste water are only 6-10 kwh./1,000 gallons. For "typical" waste waters (TABLE 1), polarization can be avoided if a current density-to-concentration ratio of 750 (ma./cm.2)/(g.Eq./1.) is not exceeded. Under these conditions, ef- fective cell-pair area requirements are less than 0.004 ft.2/gpd. Concentration ratios greater than 10:1 can be readily achieved with proper pH control; ratios of 50:1 have even been attained. PAGENO="0147" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 747 TABLE 1 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SECONDARY EFFLUENT Component Average concentration ~ secondary effluent (mg./l.) Average increment added during water uset - mg/i lb./day/ 1000 pop. Gross organics `BIo-degradable organics (asBOD) 55 25 52 25 ~ 64 31 Metbylene blue active sub- stance (MBAS)* 6 6 7 Na+ 135 70 86 K+ 15 10 12 NH4-'- Ca++ 20 60 20 15 25 18 Mg++ Cl- 25 130 7 75 9 92 NO3- NO2- HCO3- C03= 804= SiO3 PO4n Hardness (CaCO3) Alkalinity (CaCO3) Total dissolved solids 15 1 300 0 100 50 25 270 250 730 10 1 100 0 30 15 25 70 85 320 12 1 120 0 37 18 31 86 100 390 *Apparent alkyl benzene sulphonate tConcentration increase from tap water to secondary effluent The feed must be carefully pretreated to operate electrodialysis stacks in this service successfully. If suspended solids are removed to avoid plugging and dissolved organics are removed to avoid membrane fouling, electrodialysts of waste water is relatively straightforward, although very recent results may indicate some complications from microbiological forms. In tests to date, long-term ion removal has been largely nonselective. The concentration of each ion present is reduced by roughly the same fraction. This is fortunate, because generally uniform removal is what is required to provide water of satisfactory quality for most purposes of reuse. One exception exists. Only a few parts per million of ammonia can be tolerated in municipal water supplies and in many industrial supplies. Since typical municipal waste water may contain 20 mg./l. NH4~, the removal of 90-95 per cent would be required. To PAGENO="0148" 748 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT achieve this by conventional electrodialysis would be prohibitively costly. The answer appears to be in operating secondary biological treatment under nitri- lying conditions so that NH4+ is almost completely converted to N03. For simple discharge to stream when nutrients are a pollution problem, the nitrate levels present may be undesirable, but for reuse as a municipal, industrial, or agricultural supply, the N03 concentration is not of concern in most cases. Capital costs for electrodialysis equipment should be less than $.15/daily gallon capacity at 10-20 mgd and under $.11/daily gallon capacity at 100 mgd. Unless serious unforeseen difficulties are encountered in pilot-scale tests, total operating costs should not exceed $.15/1,000 gallons at 10-20 mgd and should be about $.1o/i,ooo gallons at 100 mgd. The type of water renovation sequence described above, while not yet in any full-scale application, is undergoing pilot study and, with proper safeguards and conservatism in design, represents an existing technology within our present capability. On September 8, 1965, Dr. Donald F. Hornig, the Presi- dent's Special Assistant for Science and Technology, testified before the Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee and stated that: At my request, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has just completed a feasibility analysis of a 100-mgd waste water purification plant which could be added to a secondary sewage treatment plant of the kind now used in New York City and northern New Jersey. Their report indicates that such a plant could be built for $33 million and would produce potable water at a cost of about 16ç~ per 1,000 gallons. The Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare has had a modest research program in waste water puri- fication underway and the plant they considered would use the best proven, presently available technology. Almost certainly these costs could be re- duced still further through a R & D* program. The suggested plant employs aeration, chemical coagulation and sedimentation, carbon adsorption and chlorination to purify the effluent from a secondary sewage treatment plant. If the product water is mixed with water from other sources in a large sys- tem no further treatment is necessary. For a completely closed system in which all water is recycled a buildup of salinity would occur and a desalting unit would be needed. Because of the very low salt content, electrodialysis could be used and the additional cost would be only a few cents per 1,000 gallons depending on the amount of salts to be removed. The costs quoted above include cost of land, treatment, and pumpingcosts to return the water to the distribution system. Direct delivery of purified waste water to a city distribution system is possible and can be completely safe. If it is too unattractive aesthetically, the purified waste water can be used for recreational and decorative lakes, watering parks and golf courses, industrial processes, or can be recharged to the groundwater. It must be noted, however, that there is very little practical difference between purification and direct reuse of waste water and the present widespread practice of discharging of wastes to a river from which a downstream city takes its water supply. Water Renovation-Tomorrow's Promise Only a year or so ago, the plan Dr. Hornig referred to could not have been offered. Today it can be proposed with confidence. Even with its realization, PAGENO="0149" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 749 it should only be regarded as an "early model" of future versions that will be more efficient and more economical. A whole range of new techniques are now being studied, not only by the federal government, but by state and local gov- ernments, by universities, and by industry. One process, bio-denitrlficatlon, uses specially acclimated microorgan- isms to reduce nitrates to elemental nitrogen under certain process conditions. Another, foam separation, takes advantage of surface adsorption phenomena to make beneficial use, under controlled treatment conditions, of the hitherto un- wanted billowy foam so common In many waste waters. Chemical oxidation of complex and unknown organic contaminants with hydrogen peroxide, ozone, or even hydroxyl free radicals generated by corona discharge is being considered. Phase separations such as distillation, freezing, and gas hydration are under study, as is reverse osmosis, which is perhaps the best "dark horse" candidate for total waste water purification. The long-range objective in this research Is to provide the necessary treatment systems for attaining any degree of waste treatment that may be required at minimum cost. Significantly, the word "systems" is used. Rarely will an advanced waste treatment process stand alone. Instead, systems of individual processes in series or in parallel will be required to meet particular needs. POSSIBLE SERIES SYSTEM COST AT IO-2Omgd. + 7 8 + I0 5 10 RENOVATED 56~ /1000501. WATER FIGURE 8. Generalized water renovation system, series flow. PAGENO="0150" 750 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Included with the treatment systems must be one or more of a variety of ultimate disposal processes. These processes are methods for permanent, nonpollutional disposal of the inevitable sludges and waste concentrates generated by the separation processes. These disposal techniques include such possibilities as incineration, digestion, or wet oxidation of organics; convey- ance of various sludges and solid residues tothe ocean or remote dump sites; and deep-well injection of brines into porous strata. Possible beneficial uses of waste concentrates as soil conditioners, fertilizers, or chemical raw material should also be included in the ultimate disposal category. Two general system configurations can be used. In the series-type system already described (FIGURE 8), the total flow passes through all processes in sequence. Each process contributes to quality improvement. In the system il- lustrated, the conventional primary treatment removes material that readily settles or floats. The secondary biological step removes the biologically de- gradable impurities. Coagulation-sedimentation, in the third position, elimi- nates suspended solids and colloids. Carbon adsorption removes residual dissolved organics. Electrodialysis reduces the dissolved minerals level to an acceptable value. Finally, chlorination disinfects the processed water. The same result can be obtained with a parallel-flow system (FIGURE 9). Here, primary and secondary treatment, coagulation-sedimentation, adsorp- tion, and chlorination function as described above. Demineralization is achieved 2 + 0 IO+4J 58~/lOOO gal. RAW WASTE WATER PRIMARY TREATMENT POSSIBLE PARALLEL SYSTEM COST AT l0-20m~d 0.5 [8+60 RENOVATED WATER FIGURE 9. Generalized water renovation system, parallel flow. PAGENO="0151" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 751 by a "total removal" process, that is, evaporation plus distillate "polishing," which handles only about half of the total flow. Following this step, the com- pletely purified water (the distillate) is blended with the flow from which all impurities except the salts have been removed. In FIGURES 8 and 9, the unit costs are estimated for both a series-flow and a parallel-flow system at a scale of 10-20 mgd. First, the projected total system costs are so close ($.56 vs. .58/1,000 gallons) that one type of system cannot, at this time, be omitted in favor of the other. Second, the costs of con- ventional and advanced treatment steps can be compared. In contrast to the present cost of $.l0/l,000 gallons for primary-secondary treatment (FIGURE 8), coagulation-sedimentation, which very efficiently re- moves suspended solids and phosphates, costs an additional $.08-.10/1,000 gallons (certain biological treatment modifications being studied may be able to remove up to 80 per cent of the phosphates for a lower cost). If the adsorp- tion step is incorporated to eliminate BOD and refractory organics, the additional cost is raised to $.18-.20/1,000 gallons. This total waste treatment cost of about $.30/1,000 gallons is almost three times the present level. To complete the renovation with electrodialysis would add another $.25/ 1,000 gallons to give a total renovation cost of more than five times the cost of existing waste treatment. This is clearly not an illustration of "something for nothing." Yet, the cost picture is not really so dark. First, the AWT esti- mates were made intentionally high so that they should not be exceeded under normal circumstances. Second, costs should be reduced significantly as re- search and development programs bring us closer to the most efficient designs. Third, substitute processes now being investigated may reduce costs considerably. The powdered carbon process, for example, could conceivably replace both coagulation-sedimentation and granular carbon adsorption, which cost $.18-.20/1,000 gallons, at half their cost. Another point is that cost comparisons wouldperhaps be more fair If made not just between waste-treatment processes, but also between advanced waste treatment costs and conventional waste treatment plus water supply. Water supply plus waste treatment costs, based on historical data and Including source development, transmission, water treatment, and waste treatment, have been estimatedto be about $.23/1,000 gallons on the average and to be nearly $.30/1,000 gallons in prevailing high-cost areas of the country.2 Future costs for extending conventional treatment and for augmenting water supplies will undoubtedly be higher. Now, what could be the physical impact of waste water renovation on our future water pollution and water supply problems? To derive an answer, FIGURES 3-6 were redrawn in FIGURE 10, incorporating the assumption that during the next 25 years, AWTprocessesofthe type now available are applied to every municipal effluent in the land. For municipal BOD pollution, instead of facing a temporary reduction in national BOD discharge levels until the turn of the century, we could be very close to President Johnson's recent pledge to "doom water pollution in this century." With respect to phosphate and re- fractory organic loads entering our streams, no reductions can be expected with the use of present treatment methods. However, with the use of AWT, the first reductions in history could be accomplished. For nitrogen forms, on the other hand, even available AWT processes will not be highly effective. Pro- cesses still In development must meet this need. PAGENO="0152" >. ~U) -~ C 4 Ecn U) 0 coo -JU) z(.) DU) U) 0 >` U) .0 U) o Lu ..~ p- ~ U) l)U) C/) U) = ~ 0.4 S C.) z 752 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 5000 AWl $000 0 I _____________________ $900 920 940 960 980 2000 2020 FIGURE 10 (a). Potential impact of "Advanced Waste Treatment" (AWT) on municipal discharges of BOD to U.S. streams. 900 920 940 $960 980 2000 2020 FIGURE 10 (b). Potential impact of AWT on municipal discharges of phosphorus to U.S. streams. PAGENO="0153" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 753 360( I 3200 Conventional treatment 2800~ ~ 2400 " 2000 `~AWT 900 1920 940 960 1980 2000 FIGURE 10 (c). Potential impact of AWT on municipal discharges of refractory organics to U.S. streams. Unfortunately, the total effect that water renovation would have on water supply cannot be so readily estimated on a nationwide basis because of the present appreciable natural reuse of our fresh water resources. Possibly a better way of picturing this situation is to look at an individual water user. If 80 per cent of the water used by New York City were recovered and renovated for reuse, the city's water supply, whichnowprOvideS some 1,200 mgd, would in effect be enlarged five times. This same general principle applies not only to all municipal but also to all industrial supplies. Irrigational supplies could not be extended to this degree because of the high consumptive losses involved. Another major effect that water renovation would have on our water re- sources is less widely recognized. We refer to the "low flow regulation" con- cept, that is, the storage and later release of upstream water to dilute downstream waste discharges. This is a water supply requirement, although not a withdrawal requirement, and is created directly as a result of water pollution. What startles most people is that the projections3 for water volumes just to dilute municipal and industrial BOD waste discharges are greater than for any other single use, even assuming that every discharge is treated to 90 per cent efficiency. In 1980, for example, the required flow magnitude would be PAGENO="0154" 754 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT I I I z 2000 I >. Conventional treatment / C 1600. ~AWT Zn, w (!~ n, l200~ :: ~ _______ 1900 1920 940 960 980 2000 FIGURE 10(d). Potential impact of AWT on municipal discharges of nitrogen to U.S. streams. about 300 bgd and by 2000, more than 475 bgd. Actually, the situation is vastly more complex than this, and a detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this paper. Briefly, however, with 95 per cent BOD removal, the calculated dilution volumes required would need be only one-half of those above, and with 99 per cent treatment, only one-tenth. The conclusion3 that theoretical dilution water requirements for these wastes will not go to zero as treatment efficiency ap- proaches 100 per cent is in error when physical-chemical treatment, and not extended biological treatment, is assumed. In summary, new systems or mechanisms must be developed and main- tained in this country to assure that adequate quantities of water of suitable quality are continuously available to meet our demands for municipal, in~ dustrial, agricultural, and recreational purposes and to protect our fish and wildlife resources. Past techniques for maintaining or improving the quality of water have included conventional waste treatment, dilution, and stream self- purification. These techniques by themselves, however, will be unable to serve the needs of the future. Advanced waste treatment processes which may range from extensions of biological treatment methods to quite complex physical-~chemical separation techniques are now under development. Such techniques could, in proper com- bination, not only provide complete elimination of pollution from municipal and industrial sources but even produce water suitable for direct and deliberate reuse. Advanced waste treatment or, more properly, water renovation will become a major tool in solving both of our major water resource problems~-. water supply and water pollution. PAGENO="0155" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 755 APPENDIX ESTIMATING MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES OF BOD, TOTAL NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, AND REFRACTORY ORGANICS INTO U.S. STREAMS Nine assumptions were used In estimating the municipal discharges of various materials into streams in the United States (TABLE 3). The formulas used to estimate each of the four components considered are described after the pertinent assumptions. 1. It is assumed that all sewered municipal effluents are discharged Into U.S. streams. 2. It Is assumed that by 1980 the discharge of raw municipal wastes will have ceased, and that by 1990 the entire sewered population will be serviced by primary-secondary treatment. For the period 1900-1962, the sewered pop- ulations receiving "no treatment," (5~)on' "primary treatment," (SP)pn~ and "secondary treatment," (5~)sn, were derived from References 4-8. 3. It is assumed that the waste treatment efficiencies for various materials are those shown in TABLE 2. The fraction (f) of each material remaining in TABLE 2 MtJNICIPAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TREATMENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES AND FRACTIONS REMAINING IN EFFLUENT (1) FOR BOD, TOTAL NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND REFRACTORY ORGANICS Removal of: No Treatment Percent Removal 0 Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Percent Removal fp Percent Removal 5 BOD Total Nitrogen Phosphorus Refractory Organlcs 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 35 .65 20 .80 10 .90 20 .80 90 .10 50 .50 30 .70 60 .40 the effluent discharge, that ~ f = - treatme!it efficiency, is also given. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 4. Daily domestic BOD contribution, PBOD~ is 0.167 lbs./capita/day (a constant). 5. To account for the increase in industrial wastes handled in municipal sewerage systems between 1900 and 2000, a varying ratio of "industrial plus dojnestic BOD" to "domestic BOD" was used. This was sometimes expressed as "PE/capita." Based on PE/capitafigures for 1900, 1970, and 1980, as given in Reference 11, and an assumption of PE/capita - 1.1 in 1930, a curve was prepared as shown in FIGURE 11. This curve was extrapolated to the year 2000 at a constant PE/capita of 1.75. PAGENO="0156" 756 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT `~I6 ~ `~l5 ~4.0 ~ 1~9 zI4 ~~I3 ~3.0 ~I2 ~ II ~2.0 Cl) olO ~ ~ 2 .~9 21.0 < 7 0 FIGURE 11. Variation in per capita loadings for BOD, total nitrogen, and phosphorus. The amount of BOO discharged to U.S. streams from municipal outfalls for any year, n, was estimated from the formula: (lbs. BOO = 365 PBOD(PE/capita~ [(SP)fBOD+ (SP)fBOD~I- (SP)f BOO] Total Nitrogen 6. Assumed values for annual total nitrogen per capita loadings in raw municipal sewage (~TN) between 1900 and 2000 were obtained from References 4, 12, 13, and 14. The data were plotted, and an "average" curve was drawn and extrapolated as shown in FIGURE 11. The amount of total nitrogen discharged to U.S. streams from municipal outfalls for any year, n, was estimated from the formula: (lbs. total nitrogen - ~ ~ f + (SP) f discharged per year)~ TN1n [\ on oTN + ` `pn pTN Sn sTN Phosphorus 7. Assumed valu~es for annual phosphorus per capita loadings in raw muni- cipal sewage (Pp) between 1900 and 2000 were obtained from References 4, 13, 15, 16, 17, and 18. The data were plotted, and an "average" curve was drawn and extrapolated as shown in FIGURE 11. 2000 PAGENO="0157" TABLE 3 ESTIMATED MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES OF BOD, TOTAL NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS, AND REFRACTORY ORGANICS TO US. STREAMS Year Sewered Population (millions) That discharges Total - Raw Prim. Sec. ~P) ~P) ~P) on pn sn PE Per Cap. (~()D) BOD Discharged (million lbs./yr.) ~TN Per Cap. Nit. Contr. bs./yr. Nitrogen Discharged (million Ibs./yr.) Pp Per Cap. Phos. Contr. bs./yr. Phosphorus Discharged (million lbs./yr.) Refractory Organics Discharged (million lbs./yr.) - Raw Prim. - Sec. - Total - Raw - Prim. - Sec. - Total - Raw Prim. Sec. - Total Raw Prim. -- Sec. Total 1900 24.5~ 23.5~ 1.010 010 1.00 1430 40 0 1470 7.0 165 5.5 0 170 .50 11.7 .44 0 12.1 715 25 0 740 1910 34*54 3O.5~ 4.010 010 1.03 1880 164 0 2050 7.0 214 22.2 0 236 .50 15.3 1.80 0 17.1 930 98 0 1030 1930 6l.5~ 43~54 10.810 7.210 1.11 2940 435 49 3420 8.0 348 69.5 28.6 446 .50 22.0 4.91 2.52 29.4 1320 264 86 1670 1940 7O.1~ 29.4~ 18.4~ 22.3~ 1.23 2210 900 167 3280 9.6 282 142 107 531 .65 19.1 10.8 10.1 40.0 895 450 270 1620 1945 82.06 35.26 23.06 23.86 1.29 2770 1180 187 4140 10.5 370 194 124 688 .80 28.2 16.6 13.3 58.1 1070 563 288 1920 1957 1O2.0~ 24.7~ 32.3~ 45.O~ 1.44 2170 1850 397 4420 13.2 326 341 296 963 2.10 51.8 61.0 66.0 179 752 791 545 2090 1962 123.58 23.18 27.48 73.08 1.50 2120 1640 668 4420 14.4 332 318 525 1180 2.40 55.5 59.4 123 238 703 677 887 2270 1980 192.6~ 0 - - 1.75 0 - - - 15.0 - - - 2.60 - - - - - - - - 1990 236.010 0 0 236.0 1.75 0 0 2520 2520 15.0 0 0 1770 1770 2.60 0 0 430 430 0 0 2870 2870 2000 279.4~ 0 0 279.4 1.75 0 0 2980 2980 15.0 0 0 2090 2090 250 0 0 508 508 0 0 3390 3390 PAGENO="0158" 758 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATE~fENT The amount of phosphorus discharged to U.S. streams from municipal out- falls for any year, n, was estimated from the formula: discharged per year)~ = ~p)~ [ ~on1op + ~sP)p~fpp + (sP)5~f5~] Refractory Organics 8. The category, Refractory Organics (RO), was assumed to be the dif- ference between COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and BOD. The concentration of refractory organics in raw municipal sewage was assumed to be 100 mg. /1. (350 mg./l. COD less 250 mg./l. BOD). Assuming a daily per capita municipal waste flow of 140 gallons, the annual refractory organics contribution, Pp~., would be: 30.4 lbs./ capita/year. This value was assumed to be constant during the period 1900 to 2000 because information on historical trends was not available. 9. The assumed efficiencies of primary and secondary treatment in re- moving refractory organics are shown in TABLE 3. To establish these esti- mates, the following BOD and COD concentrations in raw sewage, primary effluent, and secondary effluent were assumed. Concentration, mg./Z. Raw Primary Secondary COD 350 240 65 BOD 250 160 25 RO 100 80 40 The amount of refractory organics discharged to U.S. streams from mun- icipal outfalls for any year, n, was estimated from the formula: (lbs. ROdischarged = ~ [SPonfoRO + (SP) ~RO + (SP)fRO] ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Charles F. Walters of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration in preparing the esti- mates of muntcipal waste discharges shown in FIGURES 3, 4, 5, and 6 and de- scribed in detail in the appendix. REFERENCES 1. KOENIG, L. 1966. Studies Relating to Market Projections for Advanced Waste Treatment. Public Health Service Publication Number 999-WP-34. U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 2. McCALLUM, G. E. 1963. Advanced waste treatment and water reuse. J. Water Pollution Control Federation. 35:1-10. PAGENO="0159" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 759 3. Select Senate Committee on National Water Resources. 1960. Water Supply and Demand. 86th Congress. 2nd Sess. Committee. Print No. 32. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 4. PEARSE, L., ed. 1938. Modern Sewage Disposal. Federation of Sewage Works As- sociations. New York, N.Y. 5. Federal Security Agency. 1942. A Summary of Census Data on Sewerage Systems in the United States. Public Health Reports. 57:409-421. 6. THOMAN, J.R. 1950. Statistical Summary of Sewage Works in the United States. Public Health Reports. Suppl. 213. 7. THOMAN, J.R. & K. H. JENKINS. 1958. Statistical Summary of Sewage Works in the United States. Public Health Service Publication Number 609. U.S. Government Printing Office. .Washington, D.C. 8. GLASS, A. C. & K. H. JENKINS. 1964. Municipal Waste Facilities in the United States, Statistical Summary of 1962 Inventory. Public Health Service Publication Number 1165. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 9. Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources. 1960. Water Resources Activities in the United States-Pollution Abatement. 86th Congress. 2nd Sess. Committee Print No. 9. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 10. Assumed values. 11. U.S. Senate Committee on Public Works. 1963. A Study of Pollution-Water. 88th Congress. 1st Sess. Committee Print. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing- ton, D.C. 12. METCALF, L. & H. P. EDDY. 1922. Sewerage and Sewage Disposal. 1st ed. :306. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, N. Y. 13. McGAUHEY, P. H., R. ELIASSEN, G. ROHLICH, H. F. LUDWIG, & E.A. PEARSON. 1963. Comprehensive Study on Protection of Water Resources of Lake Tahoe Basin Through Controlled Waste Disposal. Prepared for the Board of Directors, Lake Tahoe Area Council, Al Tahoe, Calif. 14. VanVURAN, J. P. J. 1948. Soil Fertility and Sewage. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, N.Y. 15. STEPHAN, D. G. (In Press.) Renovation of municipal waste water for re-use. In Symposium on New Chemical Engineering Problems in the Utilization of Water. Proc. A.I.Ch.E.-Inter. Chem. E. Meeting. London, Eng. June 13-17, 1965. 16. OWEN, R. 1953. Removal of Phosphorus from Sewage Plant Effluent with Lime. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 25:548-556. 17. RUDOLFS, W. 1947. Phosphates in sewage and sludge treatment. J. Sewage Works. 19:43. 18. LEVIN, G. V. 1963. Reducing secondary effluent phosphorus concentration. First Progress Report of Public Health Service Grant WP-99. Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore, Md. PAGENO="0160" 760 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLL~JTION ABATEMENT Referring to figure 6 (see p. 743) the total biochemical ogygen de- mand (BOD) load to U.S. streams is represented by the curve, "I. Total Load." The nominal maximum removal efficiency of BOD from municipal wastes which can be expected of conventional treatment is 90 percent. On this basis, it can be seen that construction of conventional primary and secondary treatment installations will make a relatively large impact on the total pollution load discharged to the Nation's water resource because of the fact that many communities do not now employ even primary treatment,, much less secondary. The degree of this impact is represented by the downward trend in the "Total Load" curve which can be seen to occur during the period from the present time to 1990. However, due to our ever-expanding population, the residual BOD load (that is the 10 percent not removed by treat- ment) will become increasingly more important. The curve "IV. Sec- ondary Treated Load," represents this residual BOD load assuming the universal application of secondary municipal treatment. It can be seen that, based on present population projections, the total BOD load will again increase and by 2010 or 2020 will be equal once again to the total BOD pollution load in 1966. From the foregoing analysis, I believe two things are clear: (1) we must proceed as rapidly as possible to apply available treatment ii~ order to reduce pollution on a nationwide basis or even to "hold our own" in many local situations and (2) we must simultaneously ac- celerate our R. & D. to develop new, more efficient treatment methods. As you know, the FWPCA is even now accelerating its research, de- velopment, and demonstration activities in new waste treatment sys- tems and in control of storm and combined sewer discharges. With regard more specifically to question 10, let me state the fol- lowing. Due to the fact that conventional secondary treatment proc- esses are biological systems requiring certain "threshold" levels of food supply, nutrients, etc., and subject to "upsets" due to changing environmental conditions, toxic substances, etc., it appears that biolog- ical treatment systems of the type in use for the last half-century are at, or nearly at, their limit. Extensions of these biological processes substantially above their present performance levels would involve substantial capital outlays while gaining oniy marginal treatment ef- PAGENO="0161" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 761 ficiency returns. The processes are, however, both effective and eco- nomical for achieving treatment up to the 80 to 90 percent range. In addition, current treatment plants represent a very substantial capital investment. Accordingly, a major portion of our research effort will be to couple good biological treatment with tertiary advanced waste treatment processes which would be "built on" to existing conventional processes. We shall, also, be conducting research on entirely new processes or treatment system which could be more effective than cur- rent conventional treatment. In direet.responee to question 10, I believe that acceleration of con- struction of conventional treatment plants is completely, justified be- cause (1) it is necessary to alleviate critical and near-critical pollu- tion problems now and (2) many of the new waste treatment systems will involve tertiary processes which can be added to existing facilities. Question 8: Has your agency ever worked out a tirnetabZe foil an es't~mate of the total cost of works it believes to be nece&sary for .,an~ adequate prograim of water pollution control and planned such a pro'- Ø1a4m including the necessary research and development step~ im~ `ad- vance of the need for the actual worksY If this has not `been'done, can you produce such a plan, with costs and a timetable for carrying out the plan, for the Com~'imitteeP Answer:' This question is related to question 5', in that an a~ccurate estimate of the total costs of the measures for pollution coiflrol is not presently available. As indicated in question 5, a study to determine an answer to this problem was requested by the Public Works Com- mittee, IJ.S. Senate. An optimuth program of research and 4evelop- men't, however, has been worked out in conjunction with. the ccTen Year Program of Federal Water Resources Research" prepared for the Office of Sciende and Technology. `Estimated expenditures for Federal Water Resources Research dur~ ing fiscal years 1965-71 are listed on page 32 of the above-referen'c~d document and shown below. ` 65-240----6e--vol. II-l'i PAGENO="0162" 762 ADEQUA~CY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Estimated ea~penditurea for Federal water resonrces research; fiscal gears' `1965, 1966, 1967~ and 1971 tAlifigures are in millions of dollars In 1965-67 prices] Categdry . 1965 actual 1966 estimate I 1967 estimate 1971 plan I. NATURE OF WATER A. Properties of water B. `Aqueous solutions and stlspensions - - SubtotaL II. WATER CYCLE 4. GeneraL - - - B. Precipitation C. Snow, ice, and frost D. Eyaporation and transpiration E. Streamfiow F. Grpund water G. Water in soils H. Lakes' I. Water and plants J. Ero~i~n and sedimentation K. Chemical processes L. Estuarinc problems Subtotal th. WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION AND CONSERVATION A. Saline water cOnversion B~ Wates~ yield improvement C. tTse of water of impaired quality.~ - - ~. Cohservation in domestic use E. Conservation in industry F. Conservation in agriculture Subtotal IV. WATER QUANTITY MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL A. Control of water on the land B. Ground water management C. Effects of man's activities on water.. - - D. Watershed protection 2.2 .7 2.1 .7 2.4 1.0 1.7 2.2 (2.9) (2.8) (3.3) (3.9) 2.2 .6 .3 ,9 1.7 1.4 1.0 .5 .9 2.1 1.2 2.5 .7 .3 1.0 1.9 1.7 1.1 .5 1.1 2.5 1.4 2.5 .7 .~ 1.0 2~1 1.8 1.1 .5 1.1 2.4 L4 ` 4.0 1.0 .8 2.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 1.5 .5 (13.1) .5 (15.3) (15.4) .61.0 (24.8) 8.5 2.1 1.3 0 0'i~' .7 ,18.2 2.6 1.3 0 0 .9 23.4 2.2, 1.5 0' 0 .9 15.0 6.0 1.5 .5' .5 3.0 (12. 7) (22. 9) (28. 0) (26.5) 1.7 .3 .5 1.4 1.7 .2 .6 1.6 1.8 .3 .8 1.5 3.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 Subtotal (3.9) (4~ 1) (4. 4) PAGENO="0163" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 763 V. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION A. Identitlcation of pollutants B. Sources and fate of pollution C. Effects of pollution D. Waste treatment processes - - E. Ultimate disposal of wastes F. Water treatment G. Water quality control Subtotal Vi. WATER RESOURCES PLANNING A. Techniques of planning B. Evaluation process C. Cost allocation, cost sharing, pricing! repayment D. Water demand E. Water law and institutions F. Nonstructural alternatives G. Ecologic impact of water development~ Subtotal VII. RESOURCES DATA A. Network design B. Data acquisition C. Evaluation, processing, and publi- cation Subtotal YI1I. ENGINEERING WORKS A. 1)esign B. Materials C. Construction and operation Subtotal IX. MANPOWER, GRANTS, AND FACILITIES A. Education-extramural B. Education-in-house C. Research facilities 1). Grants, contracts, and research act allotments Subtotal Grand total Estimated ec~pencUtures for FecZera~ water resov.~rces research; fiscal years 1965, 1966,' 1967, cwi4 .l971-Co~itiflUed [All figures are in millions of dollars in 1965-67 pritss] Category 1965 actual 1966 estimate 1967 estimate 1971 plan 1.8 1.5 1.9 3.5 4.0 1.8 1.4 1.5 3.5. 2.3 3.4 9~5 21.0 5.5 4.0 5.8 1.5 . 1,3 1.4 4.0 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.2 .7 .6 .7 10.0 (16.5) (12.2) (16.0) (53.8) .2 .4 .1 .4 .1 (1) 1.7 .2 .6 (1) .5 .1 .1 .6 .3 1.0 `(1) .5 .1 .1 1.5 2.5 4.0 1,0 1.5 1.0 .5 3.0 .2 1.0 .6 .2 1.2 1.0 .2 1.2 .9 .5 2.5 1.0 (1.8) (~3)(2.3) (~0) 4.5 1.8 4.0 1.5 .9 1.9 1.7 .8 2.0 1.9 1.0 3.0 (4.2) (4~5) (~9) (10.3) 8.0 4.0 2.0 40.0 `5) 2.6 1.0 1.6 270 (1~. 1) 3.2 1.2 1.6 ~18.7 (24) 3.6 1.4 2.4 ~ (28. 5) 70. 0 91~ 9 1 Less than $50,000. 2 HEW grants in the amount of $5,304,000 allocated by subcategories. 3 Does not include $20,000,000 available for research and demonstration grants. NoPE-Total may not add up due to rounding. 107. 3 199.3 PAGENO="0164" 764 A~EQ~ACY O~ TECHNOLOGY FO~ P0LLUTIO~ A~A~1~E~ENT One äf the most significant areas needing attention and which has the potential of a significant contribution 1~o water pollution control is the program of advaneed waste tre~tmient research. This research elf ort is directed toward the development of new waste treatment proc- esses. The objective is. to develop by 1~75 feasible techniques for com- plete removal of all point source wastes. The Administration's advanced waste treatment program for ac- complishing this has received the highest priority from the Committee on Water Resources Research, Federal Council for Science and Tech- nology, and its panel of experts has recommended a greatly accelerated program. To carry out an accelerated research and development program in advanced waste treatment, a 10-year $190 million expenditure is rec- ommended to begin, in fiscal year 1967. This would provide for $26 million for dir~eot research, $~30 million for contract resear~h, and $34 million for constructing field evaluation plants. In 1967, the Admin- istration's laboratory research program will be well underway; con- tractors are even now prepared to undertake iarge-scale res~earch, and several treatment processes will be ready for field evaluation, Question 9: Are present methods for sewage and waste treatment adequate to eliminate the spread of disease by viruses? If not, what are you doing about it? Answer: Conventional primary and secondary sewage .tre~tment procedui~es used today by most communities do not completely elimi- nate viruses from sewage. Prim'~ar~~~ freatment removes some virus, and activated sludge treatment (secondary treatment) will remove even more, but field tests show that even when the effluents from acti- vated sludge plants are chlorinated, viruses can still be detected. This is because chlorine is inactivated by certain of the impurities in the effluents. The complete removal of viruses from sewage will require well- operated, more consistent secondary treatment, probably some form of tertiary treatment to remove the impurities that interfere with chlori- nation, and perhaps utilization of a disinfectant other than chlorine. Preliminary studies in this area have already been undertaken and a modest program is currently underway in research to remove viruses from w~ste effluents more effectively. Research in this and other areas relating to the removal of refractory components of wastes will be increased in fiscal year 1967. Question 11: Four agency has responsibilities with resvect to the amount of storage in Federal reservoirs under the 1961 amendments. Do you have similar responsibility with respect to locally constructed reservoir.~? If you do not have this authority, would it be desirable to have ft in view of the limited number of reservoir sites that are avail- able and the need~ to make sure that such sites are not ~i~eempted by inadequate reservoirs? Answer WTiI1e the Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- tjon has responsibilities in connection with provision of storage in Federal i~eseri~oirs under authority o~f the 1961 amendments, it has no suCh authority foi~ locally constructed reservoirs. Similar responsi- bilities for locally constructed reservoirs would be highly desirable. PAGENO="0165" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 765 Such authority ~vould permit fuller use of limited storage sites to be made for management of water quality to alleviate many pollution problems. Local reservoirs constructed under the Soil Conservation Service authority contained in Public Law 83-566 also could provide aug- mented stream flows significant to alleviate local pollution problems. At present, however, the Soil Conservation Service does not consider that* the Federal Water Pollution Control Act gives authority for them to expend funds for water quality control storage in these local reservoirs. Question 12: Your statement indicates that the total expenditure of the Federal Government for research to develop new treatment tech- nology through fiscal year 1966 ha~s been less than $5 million. In view of the importance of this subject, why have ea~penditures been so ited? What is the requsst for funds for this type 0/ research in fiscal year 1967Y Answer Although research expenditures now appear to be limited in view of the importance of developing new treatmei~t technology, they were in fact commensurate with other aspects of the water pollu' tion control program in its early growth period. It is much clearer now that greatly accelerated expenditures are needed than it was in 1961 when amendments limiting the amounts to be authorized for re~ search were added to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The 1961 amendment to the Federal Wate~ Pollution Control Act which provided for a ceiling on research was not meant to limit the research effort but rather to accelerate that effort. Since 1961, the national expectations to achieve higher levels of pol- lution control have been raised. At the same time, the problem has increased in magnitude and complexity with industrial expansion and population growth with the result that more sophisticated and expen- sive methodology must be brought to bear on the problem. The magni- tude of the water pollution control problem, including needed research, has been updated to meet our national iieeds as now recognized. The administration's research program has remained within the authorized limitations. To meet the problems as now recognized and defined, a greatly expanded research effort is needed and justified. The proposed research program can be effectively carried out using in- house and contract capabilities. The budgetary requirements for the three specified areas outlined in the act would now greatly exceed the $5 million annual limitation. By fiscal year 1968, the $25 million total limitation would have to be exceeded if the research program is to proceed at a reasonable pace in accomplishing its objectives. It is, therefore, apparent that some thange in the existing legislative au- thorization 1~r the research program should be obtained, including a revision in existing budgetary limitations. The fiscal yeai~, 1~67 request for research, including intramural res search of all types and for contracts, is $8,690,750. Quest Th: Do you hcxve any ideits as tO how more gZamou~ or dignity can be brought into th~ profession of ~anitary ~ngineering sO as to remove one of tlvt ~easoná tlia~ has apparently been keeping the inflow of people into z~his field a,~ a nnnimum ~` PAGENO="0166" 786 A~b* c~T~öiOo~ ~`o~ t~tLt~rON ABA~MEN~T Answer : Aside from the psychological avcrsion in peopl&s thinds to matters dealing with the handling, treatment, and disposal of wastes, there are perhaps four major practical factors associated with sanitary engineering which have contributed to and continue to affect the status of the profession. These are: (1) sanitary engineering has not been a uniquely identifiable curriculum in the Nation's undergrad- uate schools, (2) there is confusion in the definition of the function of the sanitaFy engineer, (3) the public is not aware of the specific activi- ties of the sanitaFy engineer and, in many cases, even of the existence of sanitary engineers, and (4) the salary structure. These factors are very much interrelated. Historically, sanitary engineering curriculums have been associated very closely with civil engineering departments in most engineering colleges and universities. In order that the neophyte engineering stu- dent be aware of the opportunities and the challenges that exist for him in the study, the understanding, and the manipulation of the environ- ment in which we live, sanitary engineering curriculums must be given specific identification. The interdepartmental nature of some elements of the curriculums is not in conflict with identifiability and is certainly not unique in today's university programs There is confusion even among sanitary engineers themselves as to the function of the sanitary engineer within the engineering profes- sioii as a whole and within society. Recently, there `has emerged the concept of "environmental engineering" which is concerned with all the eliviFonmental' factors to which man is exposed and which directly affect his health and well-being. It is generally felt that the environ- mental engineer should' be a generalist in terms of his knowledge of the broad areas related to air, land, and water pollution o~ to physical chemical, biological, radiological, etc~, insults to man. Unfortunately, this generalist approach is in conflict with the ideas of this era in which the "glamour" of science is associated with the specia'li~ts. In order that our efforts be directed most effectively to the many scientific and engineering problems of the environment, both generalists and specialists are required. It is necessary to blend and utilize the taleiits and capabilities of the entire engineering profession and of m'athe~ maticians, physieists,'Chemists, `and biological scientists,'who may have `been `tmined in other areas, for the solution of water `pollution prob- lems. `Specialists in environmental `science~ and engineering'can be developed' `through the mechanism of intensive training j~rograms. ~Th,e general'public must be made more aware Of the ~`ressing environ- mental prob~ems that we as a nation face; `The problems of water' resources, urban development, solid wastes and `transportation require' immediate, intensive research and development attention. Inasmuch as sanitary engineers `have been traditionally hired pri-' manly by State health departments, schools and `the Federal Govern- ment~ the salary `levels which a graduate sanitary engineer can exp~Ot to achieve are not comparable with those of other segments of the engi-" n~ering profession, I believe it `is fair to state that the "glamour" `and dignity of a given profession `are nearly aiways `associated with' the degree of public ~awareness of' thefmictions `of'thO profession, and this' in turn is nearly always associated with' expenditures `of money `by industries, State and local governments, and the Federal Government in areas associated with these functions. It is necessary to make salary levels more comparable to other fields of endeavor. PAGENO="0167" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY POW POLLUTION ABATEMENT 767 Question 14: P'ease furnish details of the criteria used jor awards of grants and research contracts for water poUution abatem~ent re- search. Answer: Contracts-Research contract proposals are s~ibmitted to this administration as unsolicited proposals or in response to published requests for R. & D. qualifications and subsequent requests for pro- `posals to solve specified research problems. TJpon receipt of a proposal, our technical staff reviews it to deter- mine its general priority with respect to our research needs. That is, does it relate to a problem of significance, would it provide practical and usable results, what is its probthle chance of success, what is the ~`payoff" if it succeeds and what is the negative impact on pollution con- trol if it does not? Following this initial review, and assuming it is favorable., a more detailed evaluation is performed by other research ~staff, often located at our field laboratories, who are specialists in the ;subject area of the proposal, by scientists and engineers in other FWPCA activities, and by consultants (e.g., from universities, private industry, or other agencies). Based on these more detailed evalua- ~tions of the technical soundness of the project and approach proposed ~as well as on the project's priority with respect to accomplishing our program mission and the availability of funds, the final decision is then made to negotiate a contract or not. In summary, contract proposals are evaluated on the following basis: 1. Relationship to program objectives and research needs; 2. Technical soundness of the proposal; . . 3. Cost of contract versus in-house project cost; 4. Capability of contractor; 5. Availability of funds and research jjriorities. Grants---Proposals of independent investigators largely determii~ distribution of grant-supported research and development projects Proposals are submitted~ ~ to the program in the form ot applicatio!is which are reviewed by panels of non-Federal advisory consultants. ~This review' includes an evaluation of (1) scientific merit ~andsignif- icance of the project;. (2) competency Of the staff responsible f or con- ducting the type of research proposed; (3) feasibility of the ~project and potentially `useful results; (4) adequacy of the applicant's re- sources availnbie for the project; (5) amounts of grant funds needed'; ~and (6) the relationship to the Water Pollution Control Admhiistra- tion mission. Question 15: There appear to be more and more opportunitiesr for transferring p'o'llutio~ from one segment o~f the environment tO' an- other, that is,f rem water to' air, or air to the soil~ Now' thai Pedera,l Water PdUutior~ Control Administration has been transferredto the Department of the Interior, what means are pi~ovided for ceordinc4ting the efforts of yone agency with the air and solid waste pollution cow ..trol programs of the Public Health ,Sèrnice in the Dept~rtrnent of ~Health, Edttcation, ~nd WelfareY Also with the public health aspects of the water pollution abatement pro graiine which, the co~iniimittee' `un~ derstands, have been retained in the Pv1blic Health Service' :bece of their effecton public healthY Answer.: Communication between the Federal WaterPoilutiOn Con- trol Administi~ation and Public Health ServiOe, Department of Health, PAGENO="0168" 78 ADE(~UACY OF TECHNOI4OGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT ~Educatior~, and Welfare, is a continuous process. There are no formal mea]~s yet established for coordinating the efforts of the FWPCA and the air and solid waste pollution programs of the PHS, Depart- ment of H~a}th, Eduoat,io~i, and Welfare. Since many of the staff of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration were employees of the Pti~biic ticaith Service and a nun~ther of commissioned corps officers have transferred to these pmgirams from the Fe4eral Water ~P~ilutkon, Control; Admi~istnation, a treat mumber ~E professional contacts, both formal and i~iforn~al, have been developed and aire maintained. With respect to the public health aspects of water pollution abate- ment programs, an interdepartmental agreement concerning consul- tation on health aspects of water pollution control has been developed. This agreement was signed by Secretaries TJdall and Gardner on Au- gust 8, I9~6. The Presid~nt is no~w reviewing this agreement. ~e~stion. 16: J~s ~`óu~ age~wy cotc~rri~ed with~ res~irch in~o asp~c~ of :&OCi~ e~ce ~o a~ t& ~tterprepttre the ~bZic to tcilce nece&s~a?y action in~o~zr~rtion with ~ P~e~e Øv~ ~1etail~s~ of ~iii~it ~$ be doae, or rea~rn~ why thie ie ~ ~being do~e. Answer: Under proposed expansion o~f research activities, the re- search and development program of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration will conduct research into soeloeconomic as- :pec'ts of the waiter pollution problem where there are gap ~areas in the existing social sciences and to the extent that progress in the elimma- tion of pollution is inhibited by these deficiencies of knowledge. Some of our research grants have dealt with so~iOeeonomic research but because of limiled fuu~~ng in the past, direct research has. ~ot been conducted on socioeconomic aspects of watar pollv~tion. Definition of specific research needs in this area I pht~nnedie1~u~~ing the current fiscal year. Sev~raiI ~peci&~ research needa already recogini~d include dc- ~reloq~nient of methodotogy to determine (1) the optixmuaia modes of financing audi cost allocation of waiter pollution control programs; (2) the most eff~etive institutional arrangements, both on a nationwide basis ahd on a regional basis, for the most efficient quality manage- ment of the water resource. Research will be iuiti~ted in these areas in isc~l rear 1q68. ~uee~tu~n 17: is your ~t9eQwy doing a~ res&irek iflto the effects i~ th w~y~ unt s~wo~wW work ~O ~d~c .~~Zh~tiônf Pkaseg&~~e ~etail~ of what ~s ~ein~ do~., ~r i~easons w~hy ~Ms is ~tat ~eing drni~e. Answer: The Federal Water Pollution Control Adminisliration comrn picted a preliminary study ~f the effluent charge during ~5. This study was designed to determine the amount of the charge that would produce the sathe water quality objectives as would be achicved by p~s~r1bed traatmentlevels. Data and experience ~gained from the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. eomprehënsi~e qttalit~ control. study of the Delaware River estuai7 we~'e used. The theoretical coirpiitati~ns showed that a variable charge from ~ to 8 cent~ per pound M bioàkemicaloxygeiidemand (EOD~) di~charged to ~the stteam would be appropriate. . . . Additional research ~n the~ problem is now being plituned. A4- ministrative and technical problems which were~not considered hi the frs~ e~ôrt~ ~illb~è~aain~ ~I1t is necessary tor evolve (~) the c~sts rr~dpih~éd rto administer ~theisyste1n of efficont c~hargBe,4~the o~tioaal PAGENO="0169" A~rA~ OF ~CE~UO~ FO~ ~E~O ~tÔ~4~ ~M~EM~I~ ~ ifl~t~tut1OfliL1 ~f!rameWoi~k fk~r ti~ system ~ii~dI~ (b)'~th~ ~r~t Jf~i~ torli network f~r `rno~t e~i~i~ Opét~tio~i ~ ~Thethkdy will ~Fso ~tten~pt to d~terthhie method~ fop ~ 1~1 the charges to Miow for i~pgi~ding in the ti~ c ~a~t1~'ti~ ~ Nation's water resotirce over tune, Attempth ~ill be ~mad~ adso to de~ termine industry attitude and response to such ~a ~yste~. These prep- arations nre being made in conjutibtion with t~h~é Del~*~r~ ~i~r Basin Commission. Question 18: Recent news releases by the Depart~neut of the I~tt~or suggest a "breakthrough" In control of algae in the ~tèr~ ~ivinp~ sewetge plant effluent, tlvtough ~ in pensiv'e inean~ of ~d~t~i'h~9 ~th~ am~unt of ph~sphatein th~e e#luent. Please cceplii~in the ~+npôøt~4e ~f 11 development reported, and h~w it `rehtes to ti~e ~ ~~t'~i tMcom'rn4tt~e. Answer': `Réi~ent investig~tioris at the ~mnhiciped sew~g~ tF~theilt plant, San Antdni~, Te~., by the resea~óh staff o~f,our R~be~t 5. K~rr Water ~ese~rch Center; Ada, 0km.,, have indi~ted that b~r ~ tion of modifications to acth~ted sludge ~t~x~e~s ~f~Jtihg t~am~ eters, removal of phosphorus to the 80 to 90 percent level may be possible. The experimentation is still in the preliminary stage and much work remains to be done before such modifications could be applied on a broad scale throughout the Nation. The findings, how- ever, are of potentially breakthrough signifiQance because of the possi- bility opened for achieving much higher phosphate removals in con~ ventional treatment systems then thought possible. Effort in this area is undergoing substantial acceleration. In terms of the importance of this development, however, the dis- cussion presented in response to questions 7 and 10 must be borne in mind. Even with increases in phosphorus removal to the order of 80 or 90 percent the remaining 10 to 20 percent residual load will become of real signif~cance in the near future. Further, elimination of algal blooms, the primary manifestation of accelerated eutrophication is not absolutely tied to the attainment of high efficiency phosphorus removal from municipal outfalls. The mechanisms of accelerated eutrophication and the waste components that are primarily'responsi- ble for the development of algal bloom nuisance conditions are in- completely known at this time. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are generally believed to be associated with the development of such conditions but the critical controlling contaminant could conceivably be some other trace contaminant presently unknown. Question 19: Is your agency doing any research on possibilities for stimulating growth of algae or other aquatic plants and harvesting them~ as a means of removing nutrients from sewage plant effluents.9 Answer: Algae, when their growth is stimulated in shallow ponds with frequent mixing, can accumulate within themselves at least 80 percent of the nitrogen and from 75 to more than 98 percent of the phosphorus in waste water depending upon the operating and environ- mental conditions employed. Removals of this order can theoretically be achieved if an efficient harvesting technique is used to separate the algae from the water. A variety of harvesting methods have been studied by a variety of investigators but none has yet been highly successful from both technical and economic standpoints. Moreover, the process is probably applicable only in areas of consistently high PAGENO="0170" ~7Q *~QUi~CT QF. oE4oc~y FO~ ~ sunhigh~intensity for it a~ppears that the provision of ~rti1lc~ial light,. to make the; process møre widely applicable, wgulc increase process~ cost prohibitively We have conducted research )ointly WIth the Los~ 4~rige1es County Sanitation Districts at Lanca~ter,. Calif., on the re- moval of'nutrients by aJ~ae with emphasis on the harvesting problenis~ involved A contract with North American Aviation (largely funded through a transfer of funds from NASA) was devoted to the study of forced algae growth for waste water treatment. By physical-chemical methods now under study, more than 95 per- cent of the nitrogen and essentially all of the phosphate can be re- moved by adjustmeflt of the pH of certain secondary effluents to~ approximately 11. The phosphates are precipitated chemically while the nitrogen, in the ammonia form, may be removed by air stripping. In yet another approach to nutrient removal nOw under study, the activated sludge process is controlled and modified to achieve biologi- cal nitrification and `subsequent denitrification. Potentially, a large percentage of the `:nit~'og~u may be removed by this process throug1~ biological conversion to harmless nitrogen gas. PAGENO="0171" RESPONSES To QUEsTIoNS 01" THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SorsNcz, REsi~&RCH AND DEVELOPMENT BY TIlE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Question 1: Would you discuss, in the light of the Department of Defense experiences, the relationship between our capability to de- velop standards and criteria, and the establishment of realistic en- forcem~ent programs? (E.g., do we apply the same standards to our camps in the United States and at places like Adale?) Answer: Based upon the experiences of the Department of De- fense, any realistic program for enforcement must recognize the wide range on environmental quality which may be permitted to preserve or enhance a specific environment for its desired utilization. A major part of the problem, as indicated in our previous testimony is not so much in the realm of technical or professional environmental experts, as in that of socioeconomic-political value judgments. Not only may different standards be appropriate for facilities in isolated and remote areas, such as Alaska, or some of the Pacific areas, but varying degrees of quality may be appropriate for different loca- tions within the contmental limits of the tTnited States Ipso facto application of a single"standard" for Federal installations would vio- late some of the fundamental principles of political economics. In that connection both the Executive orders on water pollution and air pollution recognize that varying degrees of control may be appro- priate in different locations and for different situations, and provide for exemptions to the "standards" for water pollution and the use of "secondary treatment." This does not establish a degree of effluent quality, but rather establishes a treatment method to be used, and one that affords a widely varying degree of efficiency in waste water treat ment. As an example, some seëondary treatment processes might remove 85 percent of the organic loading from the ~nfiuent to them, and others as high as 95 percent. In combination with other processes, depending upon the effluent desired, and the amount of expense willing to be undertaken, virtually any desired degree of removal might be achieved. The type of secondary treatment provided obvioUsly must be based on professional judgment ~f.the many methods which might be used to provide either effluent quality, or to prevent an adverse effect on desired conditions in the receiving environment. The question of varying requirements for varying desired uses has long been studied by the specialists in the fields of water resources. As long ago as the 1930 time period, suggestions as to the possible clas- sification of waters by intended usages were developed. (See "Teiid- encies and Standards of Rivers and Lake Cleanliness," Sewage Works Journal, vol. VI, July 1934; and "Sewage Treatment," Imhoff and Fair, McGraw.Hill Co., 1940.) The majority of existing statutes of the various States follow the general philosophy enunciated in these and similar authoritative works. The tremendous success of the par- ticipants in the Ohio River compacts may be attributedto the reco~rii- tion of these differences in requirements, and the use of a wide variety 771 PAGENO="0172" 772 ADEQUACY OF TECm~TOLooy FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT of enforcement techniques and procedures to attain the desired en- `vironmental situation. Any enforcement program, therefore, to be effective must be related to a series of authoritatively established "value judgments." This infers that the beneficial use of the environment can be specified or de- fined in quantitative terms, that adverse effects can likewise be quan- tified and that there are means available to protect the public health and to provide for future needs. All of this must be capable of being translated into a series of "thou shalt" and "thou shalt not" rules. There must be some effective means to determine if indeed an ad- verse situation iii relation to the desired utility is actually existing. The relationship between environmental quality and enforcement also involves a means by which the regulatory procedures shall be enforced. Tn the Senate report on this subject (S. Rept. No. 10, on the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1965, 89th Cong., 1st sess.) it was stated that water quality standards, as an example were not designed for use primarily as au enforcement device. Rather their principal objective was int,ended t~, be for the orderly development and &mproven~jen~ of resources "without the necessity of adversary pro- ceedings which inevitably develop in enforcement cases." This "per- formnance standard basis" is utilized by a number of legislative author- ities. This approach envisions that such "standards" provide an engineering base or series of engineering benchmarks or guidelines for th~ development of plans for facilities. On the - agencies insist that they must check each lesign to the last de- tail. In some insta are speci fled in the legislative action or hat some permits or similar specific may result in a failure to provide y. From the - requirements should and will upon geographical location at at that location. Further, actions will depend upon the current s: uture requirements, cud the need for flexibility to accommodate the changing needs ançl desires of the corn- ruunity, The range of environmental pollution control requirements for dif- ferent geographical locations is the result of a number of considera- tions. These include the è~tent of the need; and the variety of avail- able measures to coiltrol pollution; time structure o:f local laws and regu- lations; and to some extent the functional position of the enfQrcement authority within the particular governmental entities involved. This is not to say that there cannot be some general agreement regarding the quality objectives for the various usages. In the case of water, and perhaps in the case of the air resource, objeetives can provide a basis for both the required degree of treatment before injection of a potential pollutant into the environment and the quality of the environment desired as a source of supply. The ap- proachu used by the Food and Drug Administration in setting a toler- ance for residues of pesticides on raw agricultural products is a case in point. That which is permitted is somewhere between what is prac- PAGENO="0173" A1~EtQiVACY O~ T~iR~OLOOY FO~ [~O~~UTION ~BAT~M~NT 77.3 tical to prevent and what might be truly haimftiL It is never. above what could be. harmful and always is established at~ a løvel which is. prapticable to aehieve~and:which is meaeu~able. In summary, any realistic enforcement program for envit~onmental quality must have its basis in the state of knowledge and capability to establish standards or criteria and must envision sufilcient flexibility to accommodate to changes as improvements in knowledge, or alterations in situations occurring. It is evident that in order to avoid unrealistic programs for public expenditures as well as those in the prisrate sector that there must be a high degree of communication between the various disciplines involved including those of law, political science and eco- nomics, as well as of ecology and environmental engiheering and science. Of even more importance to any realistic program is the im- provement of communications between the specialists and the public at large. Question 2: You have mentioned the iieed for ~ national plan for the Federal departments and agencies for enajironmental poUution abate- ment. Would you discuss further how the system$ approach could be used i'n this effortY Answer: In developing a national plan for environn~etital pollu- tion abatement, it is essential that the three principal problem areas, namely, water pollution, air pollution, and disposal of solid wastes be viewed as part of an integrated larger effort to provide for the utility of the Nation's environment and resources for the f.utur~ as well aS for the present As has been widely recognized by the subcommrtte~, there would appear to be solutions to certain of the pollution problems which may not take into account the fact that they in turn create or intensify others. Burning of refuse or disposal of it into so~ealled sanitary land' fills instead of grinding it up and disposing of it through the water- borne route is a case in point. In the first instance, burnmg may create an air pollution problem, which admittedly might be offset by proper wet scrubbing and disposal of the residue from the burning operation. The extra cost of collection and transporting of the solid wastes might well be offset by the recovery of the heat energy of the waste and its use for power production (which the Department of Navy is currently experimenting with). however, in the zeai to over- come the pollution problem, the fact m~y be overlooked by some that grinding of food wastes at the point of origin and that prompt diepo~ sition into the water carried systems eliminates a source of rodent and fly breeding with attendent hazards of transmission of intestinal diseases. " There is a tendency in evaluating the potential of systems engineer- ing and systems analysis to look at "objects" rather than the basic con- cept. Admittedly some of the byproducts of modern `space technology which have been incidental to our s~rstems approach do have an appli-' cation to the problems of environmental pollution abatement. Some of these have been cited in onr prepared testimony. Another by- product which well might be investigated, is the use of nutrient rich sewage effluents for the production of protein rich algae which could be utilized for' animal foods or possibly, with sufficient re&ement, for. human consumption. Be that as it may, the fundamental requirementin the environmental pollution problem is the need for the efficient allocation of resources. PAGENO="0174" `74 ~ ~ ~ c't~~1~'o1t LL1Y~Td±~ A~A~Ei\~tE~ Asis the case with ndti al~iefense the~tiblic desire is foi~ aneThc~tive program. ~ there a ~public ~*essti*~'es tomtiintainJ fiscal responsibility. The very mature of the ei~wironniental pollution. pi~oblem eliminates a price n~echan{siñ or coinDetitive forces in the cias~ic sense. Whether one is undertaking a problem iiiY military planning, in in- dustrial production, Or other forms ~f systems analysis, the principal elements involved are: definitions of an objective or objectives; the selection of alternatives and the detailed accumulation of information~ thereon; a study of the costs of resources required which can trace relationships between inpnts and outputs, resources and objectives and last, but not least, the selection of a criterion as a test by which one alternative system may be chosen rather than another. As in the case with most systems analysis problems and as ha~ been repeatedly stated in these presentations, the central problem for both the near and long term is the selection øf appropriate criteria. The words of Hitch and MeKean in their book, "The Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age," in relation to military problems appear to be most appropriate with regard to systems engineering and systems analysis as related to the environmental pollution problem. In that work they said: Whatever ~jie ~aiitie~1ar proJ?lem~ military ~r civilian, it is fairly obvious that 1i~ choosing among alternative means to our en4i~ weneecj to s~az~ ~he end t~iem.~ ~eives with a nri't'icai eye. NOw `teehniqmes or types of equ~pmemts may he cx- tremely. efficient in ac1ii~ving'c~rtain aims, but these aims.may be the wrong ones. Aim~s that are selected almost unconsciously or at least without sufficient critical thought * * ~ ~Whilè good lutentions are sometimes reputed to be exc~l1ent paving materials, t~liey do not j~ave :the way to preferred action. In practical pr~oblenis `of thiilt*ry (or other) choice, there are always eonstraihts which pre- vept t~s from simu1tai~Oously `achieving all our objectives, These exponents `of th~comceptsof systems analysis furt~her went on to~s~y that *hile ideall~r We: should choo~e ~ ~outse of action `whi~h would maximiz~ soniething'like "the satisfaction of an individual" or "the welF.bcing of~ group" that such a prescription usually prescribes a little more thanwhat is wanted as being "the `best." `They hypoth~ esize that in' pra~ctical problem solving, we have to look at an proximate" crit&ion, as a practical substitute for the maximization of what we would ultimately like to have. Also there is a' need for breaking down ~Uhe ~5roblem jnto component piec~s or' subproblems which can be id~ntified' as `components of' the whole, but which are thore readily `susceptible to practical real time solutions. This is e~pecially applicable to `the ~nvirônmental `pollution question. ` An example of this approach was outlined by Harry Hanson while the Associate Chief for Environment Health, Office of the Bureau Chief, U.S. Public Health Service, in 1964. He suggested that these tech- niques could be used with smaller and simpler river basin basing sys- tems. All of the è~dsting hydrologic use and quality `factors could be established as a framework for analysis. Such a system could then be challenged with hypothetical or predictable conditions of supply, demand, use~ reuse, and quality requirements. Out of such an effort more precise environmental resource and environmental quality management programs could be developed. Similar applications to the larger problems of water use requirements, the relation between various pollntion implication of soii'cl wast~ procedures, could be PAGENO="0175" AD~th~dt ~F C1iNO~OGY FOJ~ ~ ~7~J ~ieve1opè4~ `Sithpi~ niod~els ais~ybotiid: I~e~déve1Oped ~n ~bt~sW~f~r ~egiond~e~iinational planrih~g ahdi~o~iining. In m~kin~ a criti~a1 exax~inatiohbf they alt~ernáth~, a~r1' a~s~s~thent ~shouid b~ t~ade of the cost (both in the s~iise'of capitai'outl'ay*ndi~i tie sense of adverse effect on resOtu~ce5 if no a~tion is tak~~') and the `~itiiity or benefits or gains associatod with each of the' álte~nathes~ Having d~fine'd broadly the problem and then ~addre~sed attention to concept and methodology, specific evalu~tioi~ studies sh'öuld be made on a geographical regioxial basis with atteution directed first to those areaS of known major problems. Obviously, since over 80 percent o~ the population is expected to be located in the 200 some odd standard metropolitan areas in the next few years, primary attention shOuld be given to those Federal installations located in or a~tjacent to these cen- ters of population.' It seems feasible to reduce some of the detailed planning `of actutd programs and control systems to the typical network analysis and ~programing documents used in the PERT system to establish appro.~ priate reporting and control systems* to measure progress `toward the previously developed objectives. Inherent ~ii this is the continued ~"roll forward" of the near-term plan, mi an annual reprograming'~ycle. In applying, the systems methodology and the techni4ues suggested' ~above, it must be kept in mind that neither the plan nOr its imp1emen~ tation is solely the province of the technical expert. Specialists ~n public administration, law, sociology, afid' economic~ must be jnvolve'd ~nd must participate with the professional environtimontail pollution ~abatement workers of the Federal departments in developing a truly. Federal plan. Professor Morrisy' Gonzey of the University `of Colo~ rado, in hi~ paper, "Proposal for a Program `of Resea~'ch and Graduate `Training in Environmental Economics," makes this point very well as follows: " ` ` `Thus in the end, scientific analysis of tile ~conO'rnic and si3eial problem~ in- *olved in ~nah1taining and improving the `~ualit~ of the i~tatural èhvU~ornnèi1t becomes `intetdiscipliriary. This view iS of' ~our~e~,inherent iii th~ natn~e of ~stems anaiysis and program bud~eting. ., `, .` While there may be violent disagreement in s'ome quarters r~garding the results of the so-called syst~ins analysis, and other efforts to `inte~ grate all of the'multifacets of the poliutionproblein into a mth~ageabi'e `form, `the `fact temain~ that sothe of the `experience and expertise `of resource management inherent in these approaches can be' `applied `with suitable'modification to the pollution abatement pToblem.' W~mile "experts" may disagree with the results, depending upon th~r sp~èific ~orientation, the systems approach does prodube analytical ass~stanOe upon which policy judgment can be `based. There is' a `great"ñè4d in the environmental polintion program `as there is in those of defen's~ and space for an assessment of alternatives, `and' of the effect thereo~i~ of `what the economist terms, "1and~'.labor, and capital." The very per- ~vasive nature of the questions concerning environmental qnali'ty' ~nd environmental pollution abatement make it vital that the requir~m'ehts, constraints, and side effects on other national policies be e*aminea"ip. a systematic manner~ In so doing, it must be recognized that the very nature of the problem, with many different governmental jurisdiction~ and varying public `interest involved, indicates that there will' result from such analysis a' spectrum of program choiees. The ultimate PAGENO="0176" ~T~1 O~ ~p~LE~rIç~N ~ ~ ~t~n ti~v~~ ~ ~1f~ç~1 ~ public domain It ~ 1~ye~ `~4~U~ ~ç~pt c~ ~ ~e8~h~p" i~ ~`ea~LLy p~.tq t e~~e~t4 What j~ ~tq~i~ i~U~ Eed~ti i~i~it~ and ~geuc~eu~su1it 1~ptlie~te~t øf p~ti~1 rcsu1t~ ~o~oa~yo~ cpera- tj~*; ~nd r~a~øi~iab1e ~p$t~1 irntrnei~t, Q$tio'nS~ H~w do ~yo'u ~iew the role of the profee~sio~z~~Z ~pepiali8t ~ pro~d~g ~ ietter ,~ça~e of 1ç~wledge oi~ the ~c~rt of the ~nerct2~ n~k~ ~egaro~ing. the ~rob~ern~ of. e~v~r~nime~ai pcrillutio~ a4~vr~e~i4P Ausw~r.: Tjie p~o~essi~ spe~4alist has a ~twral or pr essional ob~ ~ga~ioi~to give the ~a~s o~f a~g~iven ~ituation ~s he se~ them without ~t$ei~pting to c~ol~r the views wilth his~ po~rsonai opinions, motivations~ d~ire~ poiit~cal or religious ~omvictions~ The "in~or~ti~i explo- sion'~ thati~ aoo~rnp~yingtI~e spe~ed~ip~ adv~ce o~s nce~ and teeh~ nology and the rapidity of communication (particularly in the public medj~) pres~nts a maj~r challenge to~ the professional spe~ialists in in- formiz~g the public regarding environmental pollution. Many aspects of tl~e question of environmental qnality in reality (as has been mdi- c~ted in ou~ prepared testimony and in response to these additional continuation questions), involve ~sub jective, reactions rather than ob~ jeotive analysis The impoz~tane~ of providmg information m a * rea4iiy understandable f~rm br i~se by the general p~blio beco*i~s irnmediatelyapp~rent. The professioi~a1 speei~1ist in environmental polhitioii must ~écog' nize that individuals (~d individuals collectively in groups)' take a~ztion when the,satisfaetion to be derived from that action out- weighs the discomforts and saeri~ces that he may have t~ undergo in order to' ai~rive at that particular goaL This does not, infer that people and populations behave in a rational manner. Population preji~di~es, habits, ~nd just sheer inertia may prevent what appears to be a perfectly logical and `necessary course from being underbak~n, Expectations and apprehensions based on past experien~cçs. or on ip$e- quate i~for~a~ion; alti~oiigh. ~n~ound~ecl, may prove to ,be~ a de4~iding `determinata in in, `now being incorporated into the Defense Documentation (enter, an4 the servi~esayaalab1e to the vaHous Federal depurtments ~d~.~g~ucies. through .th~~ationaJ Research, Côu~cil, National Ad- ~p~e~ter `onTo eo~ogyrepr~senii~o~s to ke~avaiable~o~n'~ PAGENO="0177" ~QF~ IQi~O~L)~ FQR~ POLLtTTION A~ATE~1EN~]? 77? ~pid reca~11 b&8is1U~e~ytL~4 aaiio~t of data~ being prodi~wed ~s~part of our research, development, test, a~id evaluation p~g~a~us. What iS needed however, is. somet g similar to4he NAS~ "Aeroepa~ Medi- cine and Biology Continuing Bibliography," aimed at the broad prob lem ofhnrn~n~ ecology and environmental pollution. This latter pub- lication, compiled throujh the cooperative efforts of the Library of Congress, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astroiiautic~, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, assembles within the cover of a single announcement groups of references that were formerly announced in. separate journals to provide a convenient com- pilation for all scientists concerned with the problem. Development of such a program would provide for an improved state of knowledge within the various disnplrnes and for a better interchange of under standing of wh~:t is being done in the interest concerned. Another major effort on the part of professional specialists to de- velop further general public awareness of the facts and problems of environmental pollution is that associated with professional society and intersociety actions, There are a great number of professional organizations such as the American Society of Civil Engineers, the A~merican Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Institute of Biological Scientists, and many others, whose members are * active in environmental pollution control. In addition to presenting testimony before congressional committees which some of these orga- nizations have done in tbe past, a much more vigOrous undertaking at the State and local level in presenting technical opinions and views before authorities concerned with le~'hiative matters and in the devel- opment ot statements for issuance in the general public press, as in form of reportsof their committees, would serve a most useful purpose if the necessary care and restraint indicated above i~ exercised. Simi- larly the various professional and interprofessional groups can con- tribute a great deal to better understanding of the problems of p~llu- tion through working with the secondary schools in furnishing guest speakers, exhibits, and even instructional materials. The professional specialist can assist greatly in better public under- standing as he develops a better~ knowledge and appreciation of the techniques and principles of modern communications Not all scien~ tists are good speakers, nor are they endowed with ability to translate complex scientific and technical problems into readily understandable terms, However, an increaSing awareness of the importance of the techniques utilized in television, radio, and other mass communication media including the traditional one of the public periodical and daily newspaper wifi assist in providing the general public with the necessary information upon which it can make the judgments at the polls and through their legislative representatives. The scientist and all other specialists in environmental pollution have the task of translating information to the public, in readil~ understandable form. In so doing, the aim of providing a basis for judgment by those who must exercise some (the public up to through the iegisTh~tive process) will be best served if the features of the scientific method described by Karl Pearson in the last decade of the 19th century~ are followed. These are: . (a) Careful and accurate classification of . facts and observa- tions of their correlation and sequence; c8-240--66-vol. II-12 PAGENO="0178" AU~r~btba~y bILtfl?ItYN A~A~t~M~ (1~) Th~ ~ &~I!'Iit~the~ ~r~i!d~f tli~~t~IP~ i~iWginationiid~ (`e) 3S~ c±biki~sh1(and~wfihitii t~ch~o~ëof ~qu~aiii~lidi~iy fo~ au normally con~titttt~dmh~ids. Questiq~t ~: Do the pre8ent procedures foro~itaini'~tg f~~IJ~ for po1iu~- ~i'on .abdten~e~itt a~d the r&9earch ther~on'aff è~th~ t1ie'Depa~rtment of Deie~e c~ee&te~ctny special p~ob7e~ivsr Answer~ The existing procedures for the military construction pro~ gram do `presentsome' probl~xns insofar as `$llution abatem~nt proj- ects for the military departments and agencies are concerned. Nor- mally t1~e typical military cOnstruction cycle involves something over'3 years from the time of identification. of the need for the project and its completion. National defense plans and decisions affect the size `and * ~scope of the military construction program ~nc1 individual installa- tions are `continuafly engaged' in evaluation of `their requirements to meet epproved Defense programs. There `are no special provisions in `the current statutes and procedures for the military construction pro- gram whiCh apply to air and eater pollution abatement projects or exempt `them from the scrutiny required tO establish their `relative importance and urgency in budget prior to jn~lusion `of specific proj.. ects in the budget: program to be submitted' by~ ~the President to the Congress. , Development `of a**typical* fiscal *year~s military `construc-' ti'on program in~oives ~pp~ro~imately 1 yea~ of in si~veplant~ing and review'. In this rOviOw, pollution' `abatem~n~ projects must stand On their merits as compared with~ other rOquirements' directly related to the operational missiOn and personnel support. Under the proirisions of Executive `Orders' l12~8 and 1128~ new facilities must be'providod with adequate measures for control of pol- lution, and pollution control for existing' f~ciiities xniI~t meet' estab-' lished standards. ~This ~vi'll necessitate' the inclusion ~f apprO~riate pr~ect~ for e~p~nsion of existing facilities `~vhere tl~ey ~a~e inadeqi~ate. Normally thi~ w~il not preser~t very n~iany p~Ob~n~s, exceptin the case of installations in ~hich~éxisting~waste di~~Qsa~i facilities~:are recog~- rii~ed a~s requiring up~ading,*or*imprcwe1nent `but * no' iffintecliate nrgenc~ exists.' `Asse~ssi~i'ent of p~or~tie~ thay~be di~cult particularly in' view of the "leadership" req~uire*inent of the Ex~cntive order~ Li~e~ wise, serious problems emerge'in getting authorization and appropria- tiobs for initia~tiOi~ of work that is deemed necessary by a' State or other regulatory authority with completion desired ~ooner than that prov~id'ed `in the military construction program. This problem has been recognized by `the' military depa~rtments and it is `currently being studied by ~ `working grQup of `th&DOD'En~riron.. thental `Pollution Control Committee and representa~Fves of the `Office of the General counsel of the Department of' Defen~e~ Proposals will be included in the Department's legislative program which will al- low for special identification of environmental ~polintion abatement projects. `In addition, it is' envisioned that some'special provisions might be requested' which `would `allow e~peditious authorization of projects of a special and urgent nature. At the present time, there is no special identification of environ- mental pollution abatement research programs. * A considerable amount of effort `is uindertaken by the military departments `and agen- cies on research either directly associated' with pollution control from PAGENO="0179" ADEQUACY ~ TECHNOLOGY FOIt'POLLVTION ABATE~1ENT 7i~ military facilities and ,~ssocia~e~ with milItary systems; or which I~as a bearing upon pollution abatement pr~b1ems No specific prob lems have been experienced insofar as apprOval of necessary research, developthent test, and evaluation programs is concerned. ~kwe~er, due to the structure of the research prOgram of the Departi1~ei1t, it is ~sometimes djfficuIt to identify all elements of the research program which n~ight be considered as having a relationship to pollution abate- :ment. Here again, this problem has been recognized and is currently ~su'bject of study and evaluation to determine the best course of action `to be followed in the future. There were a number of recQmmendatic~S ~contained in the President's Science Advisory Committee's report which have definite implications to the Department of Defense's re- ~search activities. In addition to means of better identification of the projects and programs conducted by the military department, the need for some specialized overall research identification and program is being carefully considered. Question 5: Do you believe that many of the currently proposed ~pi4ografl?i$, such a~ the $0 billion program to separçtte storm and 8am- tary ,wwers are "cost effective" with regard to our military installa- /tions?. Answer: The question of "cost effectiveness" of pollution abate- ment works is extremely difficult to unswer. Before elaborating upon some of the general issues, information on the spe~cific case of separa- ~tion of combined sewers may provide an insight into the larger ~question. The majority of Defense, facilities and installations hai~e been built `with either separate sanitary and storm drainage syst~ms o~ storiTi ~water is carried away through surface runoff channels. At some installations, it has been found that there is a large volume of, wate~r: infiltrating into the combined storm and sanitary sewer collection systems. As a result, the flow reaching the waste water treatment :faciity is v~st1y disproportionate to the population, served. Cost of constructing new separated collection systems h~s been compared to the initial capital outlay and annual operating eo~ts which would be required to provide for the total flow. In other `instances, increasilig ~buildup of the occupied areas of the installation has resulted ~in a decrease in the time' of concentration of surface runoff reaching the combined sewers as well as an increase `in volume. Here again, analy- sis has indicated that a tradeoff exists. in the costs of, new collection ~systems versus increases in plant capacity. At such installations, plans `have been formulated for modifièation and improvement of the exist-S ing collection system. Another consideration in determining separation of existing com-. `bined sewers at some military bases has been the heavy degree of in- dustrialization of the military installation with resulting geneintion of `industrial wastes which adversely affect domestic sewage treatment' ~operations. It is emphasized that these projects have `been undertaken on an `individual installation by installation basis based on demonstrated `needs. Insofar as current and future construction projects are con- cerned, the three military departments have established policies for the construction of only separate systems. PAGENO="0180" 7~O ADEQUACY OF TECHNOL9QY ~`OR PQLLIJTION ABATEMENT With regard to the more generalized problems of cost effective- ness of environmental pollution, the established Department of De- fense programing procedures take into aiccount both near and long term requirements. The economics of environmental pollution abate- ment require that the problem of allocating resources efficiently within the present technology be distinguished from the problem of advanc- ing the state of the art and for developing new technology. The ques- tion of cost effectiveness of environmental pollution abatement pro- grams and procedures can be thought of as being somewhat analogous to tl~e economic analysis utilized in some aspects of D~fense Depart- ment planning and programing (see also answer to question 2). There is no question but that the problem of environmental pollution abate- ment requires immediate remedial and interim preventive measures or that new technology and new concepts will be developed to pro- vide for the future. There is likewise no question but that the Fed- eral departments and agencies must undertake activities to abate and prevent pollution from their installations and operations. From a truly cost effective viewpoint insofar as the Department of Defense is concerned, the direct cost associated with installing, operating, and maintaining environmental pollution abatement control procedures contributes only incidentally to the maintenance of military effective- ness. The principal direct gains and costs of the Defense program are associated with such desired ends as deterrent and limited war capa- bilities. Direct costs are the goods and services which are necessary to the national seduirty program. There are many indirect impacts of Defense operations, some of which may be described as benefits and others as costs. Since environmental pollution control programs con- tribute to the preservation of natural resources and through their effect on improvement in health and well-being of the population to the Nation's manpower potential, there are some Defense implications in the indirect benefits of these expenditures. In "The Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age," Hitch and McKean point out that it should be recognized that there are numerous spill-over benefits to private sectors of the economy from Defense operations. They pointed out that highways built for Defense purposes, sea and air navigational aids, military education programs, and research on Defense activities provide contributions to the national well-being. This applies also to the environmental pollution abatement expenditures. Like military problems, the central consideration in assessing cost versus benefits or cost effectiveness is the need for definition of the objective. In attempting to assess the cost effectiveness of a par- ticular program, the ultimate end must be carefully scrutinized so as to arrive at criteria which allow a realistic judgment. The meth- ods of operation of Department of Defense programing do result in this sort of analytical approach to our environmental pollution abatement programs. Where the objectives are not clearly specified in form of environmental quality standards or statements, necessary judgments are made utilizing the best available information and consideration of the various alternatives. When viewed against that rationale the military programs for environmental pollution abate- ment do indeed have a cost effectiveness basis. Insofar as f lie larger issue of the national programs, it is believed that the technique dis- cussed with regard to question 2 and the comments relating to systems PAGENO="0181" ADEQUACY' OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 781 nnaiysis do provide a means whereby a cost ei~ective approach `can be taken. Question ~: Eow does the Department of Defense arro~ngepriorlties and plans for pollution abatement for .~ubmission to the Bureau of the l3uclget and the con9ressY Are these plans in consonance with national progams developed by the Federal Water Polution Oontrol Administration, HEW, or however~ Answer: The military departments and agencies, in accordance with general guidance developed by Department of Defense Environmental I~ollution Control Committee, analyzed their requirements for pollu- tion abatement works and, programs and developed their phased plans for inclusion in the consolidated Department of Defense reports to the Bui eau of the Budget Executive Order 11258 required the submission of the first plan for water pollution to the Bureau of the Eudg~t on July 1, 1966, with an annual revision thereafter.' This plan was re- quired to be developed in consultation with the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. The first plan for air pollution abatement will be submitted in accordance with the Executive order on July 1, 196~T. In the case of the water pollution abatement plan for fiscal years 1968-~2, the plan was developed as a best estimate of the facilities to be provided and a time phasing schedule contemplated for its ac- complishment. It was recognized that the plan does not constitute an actual budgetary program since it must be subjected in each fiscal year to the normal budgetary processes and will have to be revised annually. In the case of water pollution, the initial plan gave highest priority to those installations which could connect to municipal sys- tems which would be constructed in the near future, and to those instal- lations which were not in compliance with State and local regulations. Following this, priority was given to installations having no treat- ment, and then to those with primary treatment only. Due consideration in assessing priorities was given to the recom- mendations outlined in the Subcommittee on Natural Resources and Power, House of Representatives Committee on Government Opera- tions' reports. The proposed military departments' plans and programs were re- viewed with representatives of the regional program directors of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration prior to submission to the Bureau of the Budget. Comments and recommendations re- garding installations which they considered should have been included and were not, as well as other suggestions regarding the plan, were furnished to the Department of Defense. The plan has been for- warded to the Bureau of the Budget who, it is our understanding, will have a more detailed review from a national planning viewpoint accomplished by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration prior to advising the various departments as to any changes or modifi- cations required. In the case of air pollution, instructions are currently being formu- lated for issuance in the form of a Bureau of the Budget circular which will provide guidance to all Federal departments and agencies. Representatives of the various Federal departments have been con- sulted regarding specific problems associated with the development of the:Lr plans. It is anticipated from information currently available PAGENO="0182" 7&2 ~ADEQUACY OF T~CW~OL02Y FOR POLLtTION A~AT~MENT ~that a report. will be required for those installation~ i~ot meeting the repiireüient~ of the Executive order and regu1atio~s, `and a ph'as~d and orderly plan for correction will be submitted. This ~1an will be reviewed by the Bureau of the Budget, and the the Division of Air Pollution and the departments advised thereon. In both air and water pollution control (and in the future on solid wastes disposal) it is hoped that by close, communication with the department having primary responsibility (the Division of Air Pol-~ lution, U.S. Public Health Service; Office of Solid Wastes Disposal,~ ITS Public Health Service, and the Federal Water Pollution Con trol Administration) the priorities and time phasing in the consoli- dated Department of Defense plan will reflect overall national con- cepts and programing `philosophies. It is intended to expand the' efforts of coordination at the departmental level and in the regional and field activities as well. PAGENO="0183" RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS OP THE SUBcoMMrrr~roR S~IE~cE,,RESEARC1r,~ AND DEVELOPMENT BY MR. BERThAM C. RAYNES,,RANDDEVELOPMENT CORP. Question 1: Zn yowi' testimony before the &,~bcovvimit'tee' onScience, Research, and Development, Committee on &isnce and A.st~onawtib8~ on July 28, in answering questions about the coal process in treat~nV sewage, you made reference to the increased effl~iency' possil~le' with this process when the coal could be burned after use and the energy' of the coal recovered. You mentioned that this step' was on'i~j'feasibte' in the larger sise plants; how is the coal to be disposed of after use' in smaller plants if it is not to be burned? If t has to be buri~d or' otherwise disposed of on land, does this not add to tile' pollution of the soil? Zn the larger plants where the used coal is `burned' doe's not * this process merely transfer the polluted material absorbed' b~y~ the cocd from water into the atmosphere? Answer: My reference is to increased economy possibi~e' when the' coal-sewage solids mixture is burned with recovery of the' thermal energy it pos~esses. Plant effluent quality rem'aii~s' the' same regardless of the fate of this m~terjal.' Incin~eration is the disposal means we~ favor. Incineration' can be carried.out regardless of tize' size' of' `treat- ment plant involved and at' some scale of operation (`perhaps for a. plant serving 25,000 to 50,000 persons), reëovery of the energy becomes economically attractive in-plant. If the plant is `situated near an~ `already existing bOiler it is entirely possible the coal mixture from even a very small plant can be used economically. ~By no means are we interested in substituting one pollution proble~i' for another. We do. `not want to pollute the air in the process' of help~ ing to control pollution of surface waters. Sewage treatm,emt plants~ which produce "sludges-both, primary `and secondary treatment plants-often `incinerate those ~iudges' for disposal. The coal-based sewage treatment process `does not eliminate the:air pollution problem,. but it can decrease it b~cause higher in~inera'tioi~ temperatures and~ `afterburner `temperatures can be used than with `sludge. I'd' like to' work on `air pollution problems, but haven't yet. Question 2: In your statement you made ref ere~wre to the Federci2 Government forcing industry to take care of its wastes.' Do you fe'eZ' that if the aove~*~ent' does, through legislation, force this step to `be taken, that the necessary technology `will be produced by this action?' Answer: Necessity ha's `always been the father of technology. Question 3: In urging that the Federal Water Pollution Control' Administration set up a troubleshooting group of e~rperts to help work' out the practical problems of operation of sewage treatment plants in smaller towns,does this not put the Federal Government in direct corn- petition with sewage plant engineering firms? Answer: I don't believe so. Engineering firms are not sewage plant~ operators. If equipment fails, engineering firms can help, or the' 783 PAGENO="0184" 784 ADEQUACY OF TECITNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT equipment manufacturer can help. My suggestion concerns plant operation and technique. Question 4: Do you believe it is realistic to force industry `to return "pure" water to streams regardless of the cost of necessary treatment? A~e you not afraid that lack of capital will hinder any such effort? Answer: Sir, a chemical engineer can never ignore costs. Granted that cleaning up pollution is ~xpensFve. But not cleaning up polhition is expensive, too. Industry pays to clean up its water supply. Mu- nicipalities pay to clean up their water supplies. There are dama~ges ~to public and private property caused by `~1li~h arkl corrosion. AndY there are other costs, the esthetic losses. It wa~y he, in fact, unrealistic not to require industry to return clean water' to streams-on a cost basis alone. I haven't seen a balance ~heét on these costs; some say it will cost too much, and some say it will be worth the' cost. A good, complete balance sheet would bo useful in permitting an objective assessment of which approach will `actually costless. Perhaps this committee could authorize th~ developi~nent of sw~h a bal~~ce sheet: Question 6: Your statement suggests t7zo,~t yau FIGunis 8 Question 2: What are your views on the problem~ of ultimate dis- posal of nuclear fuel wastes (after reprocessing) when nuclear-electric power becomes a dominant factor? Answer: In a broad sense, this question has been the subject of con- siderable study, concern, and--in many cases-debate by nuclear in- dustry professionals, State and Federal agencies, and other interested groups or individuals both domestically and worldwide for over two decades. During this time, high-level waste handling practices have evolved and sufficient operating experience has been accumulated to prove the applicability and, in general, the acceptability of these meth- od~ for radioactive waste storage on an interim basis, as contrasted to permanent or ultimate disposal. Fission product wastes derived from solvent extraction separations plants (the current standard reprocessing method) are generally classi- fied into four categories: high-, intermediate-, and low-level aqueous wastes, and gaseous wastes. The principal characteristics of these waste streams are as follows: High-level `wastes.-High-level waste is generally the waste raf- finate from the first cycle of solvent extraction. This raffinate stream is acidic and contains 99.9-plus percent of all the fission products orig- inally present in the spent nuclear fuel. The raffinate stream is normally concentrated by evaporation to yield a final waste solution of a few hundred gallons per ton of uranium processed. This final high-level waste solution is stored in either an acidic or alkaline form in underground tanks (either stain]ess steel or mild steel) with an- cilia ry operdt.mg facilities and instrumentation to detect inaloperation of the sped lie contai muent systems employed. The water rejected from the waste concentration step above is con- taminateci with far lesser quantities of fission products than the orig- inal high-level wastes and is subsequently handled as an intermediate- level waste. PAGENO="0217" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE ?OLLUTION ABATEMENT 817 intermediate-level wastes.-These wastes are generally composed of: 1. Second-cycle wastes derived from the solvent extraction process. 2. First cycle waste condensates. 3. Coating wastes derived from the chemical decladding of nuclear fuel elements. 4. Aqueous wastes accumulated from washing and purifying the organic extractant. These wastes, either singly or pooled, are concentrated by evapora- tion. The distillate is routed to the low-level waste treatment system. The concentrated waste (still bottoms) is stored in underground tanks. The volume of intermediate-level waste generated per ton of uranIum processed is several fold larger than that for the high-level waste. Low-level wastes.-Low-level wastes are made up of water rejected from the distillation of intermediate-level wastes, process cooling water which has the potential of becoming contaminated, and other related process streams. This very large volume waste stream is treated by various methods to reduce the fission product content to acceptable levels and is then discharged to the environment. The fission products which were removed or "scavenged" from this solu- tion are retained by tank storage on the plant site. Gaseous wastes.-Gaseous wastes contain volatile fission products (for example, krypton and xenon) and other fission products that eS~ cape the chemical separations operations with process and ventilation air (for example, radio-iodine, tritium, and so forth). The gaseous wastes are treated chemically and filtered extensively to meet discharge limits for the disposal of gaseous wastes to the atmosphere. CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE STORAGE PRACTICE From the foregoing, it is immediately evident that: 1. The fission product wastes are retained at the separation plant in a liquid and mobile form. Thus, these wastes nre stored, not disposed of. 2. The only material disposed of, in the strictest sense and ex- eluding the gaseous wastes, is water. 3. The integrity of the storage vessel is all important. Suc~ cessive generations of storage tanks must be available as the original vessels fail from corrosion or other causes. 4. The storage system must be monitored continually to detect failure of the containment system resulting in the unwanted dis~ persal of fission products in a mobile form to the environs. ACTIVITIES IN TIlE WASTE MANAGEMENT FIELD. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commissioia is currently supporting a multimilhon-dollar program within theAEC complex to develop and demonstrate practical and economic means of converting high-level aqueous wastes, typical of those assumed ~q be produced by the com- mercial fuel reprocessing industry, ~o immobile solids. These fission product-containing~ solids, either as calcrnes or. after conversion to `~glasses," are to be packaged rn ~high. integrity ~metal containers suit- able for permanent storage in special geo~ogic~tl formations, that is, salt mines, and so forth. It is to be noted that the conversion of the, liquid PAGENO="0218" 818 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT waste to a solid form results in an additional benefit; namely, the volume of calcined waste is the order of 1 cubic foot per ton of uranium processed as contrasted to a value of several hundred gallons per ton for the liquid waste. This program is scheduled for completion in the next 2 to 3 years. Similar, but less extensive, programs are also being carried forward by the AEC for the conversion of intermediate-level wastes to im- mobile forms. Activities in the foreign field are also being pursued along technical lines paralleling those of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. FUEL RECOvERY OPERATION-WASTE MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES During the 1970's and beyond, it. is expected that nuclear electric power will play a major role in the `domestic electric power field, and as a consequence there will be a considerable amo~1nt of activity in the commercial nuclear fuel reprocessing business with the attendant production of fission product wastes. The General Electric Co., through its fuel recovery operation, plans to participate in this expanding commercial business and will em- ploy a technically advanced (relative to solvent extraction) reprocess- ing system for the recovery of the valuable constituents of spent nu- clear fuels. The waste handling `operations planned for this advanced process-- the aquafluor process-are consistent with our `overall views on radio- active materials waste management; namely: 1. The high-level reprocessing waste will be converted to dry, solid form and subsequently sealed in metal containers. These waste containers will be retained at the `separations plant to per- mit periodic evaluation of the integrity of the packaged waste and to allow for waste accountability and/or retrieval, if desired. 2. Intermediate- and low-level wastes will be stored in a solid, nonmigratory matrix. 3. No liquid waste will be discharged to the surrounding sur-. face or ground.waters. SUMMARY In summary, it is our view that: 1. All high-level radioactive wastes should be converted to a solid, nonmigratory form. Since some of the fission products in high-level waste, for ex- ample, Sr-~90, Cs-137, Pu-239, represent a significant hazard to man for many centuries, this waste should be packaged and stored so that surveillanceand retrieval is po~Sible. 2. Intermediate-level waste, although not as significant a hazard to man as high-level waste, should at least be stored in a noninig- ratory matrix. 3. Gaseous wastes may be discharged to the environment as long as the radioactive content is below discharge limits as set by regu- latory agencies. It can be noted, however, that recovery of kryp- ton and xenon from gaseous wastes may become attractive as the separations industry matures. It `is unlikely that their recovery would be based on health ~uid safety criteria, bnt rather for their subsequent use ascommercial chénik~als. PAGENO="0219" RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 01? THE SuEaoMMn~rEE ON ScIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT rnr DR. CHARLI~S A. Bisilor, U.S. STEEL CORP. Question 1: How does the steel industry `view the possibilities for recycle of metals in manufactured goods-autos, refrigerators, and so forth? Answer: The steel industry has through the years been a purchaser of scrap for recycle. According `to a recent statement before the Sen- ate subcommittee considering bill S. 3400, Mr. W. S. Story, executive vice president of the Institute of Scrap Iron & Steel, stated that in the past 2 years steel mills and foundries bought more `than 30 million tons of prepared scrap annually. This included more than 6 million tons of auto scrap. Scrap may be contaminated with foreign materials such as copper, nickel, zinc, lead, tin, aluminum, rubber, plastics, and so forth. While none of these foreign materials are helpful, at least three-copper, * nickel, and tin-cannot be removed in the normal course of making steel. Accordingly, preparation of scrap by the scrap dealer is the only safeguard. However, I understand a great deal of thought is being given in many different quarters to solving the segregation problemby mechanical and magnetic methods. In reading about the recycling of scrap, it is apparent that th~re are many ancillary problems, such as. the collection of scrap in a neighbor- hood, the legal redtape as to the ownership of discarded vehicles, re- frigerators, and other junk left on public property, and the ultimate transporation of `the processed scrap to the steel plants. Question ~: Regarding the need in a nuQmber of industries for a j~ocess to remove SO2 from stack gases, could this best be attacked by Federal R. c~ D. contracts, or by an int;erindustry cooperative pro- gram, or by individual process engine~ring companies? Answer: Since so many industries burn coal and oil, there is a broad interest in processes fOr removing SO2 from stack gases. I believe that the initial studies should be carried out by Federal E. & D. con- tracts, either by Government agencie~ such as the Bureau of Mines, or by private research groups. For processes which, show promise, grants should be made for demonstration plants to teSt the engineer- ing design features. 819 PAGENO="0220" RESPONSES `ro QUESTEONS or `rirs SUBCOMMflTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY DR. C0LIN M. MACLEOD, EXECUTIVE OPrICE OP THE PRESIDENT Question 1: Could you describe existing coordination mechanisms within the executive branch for scientific activity in environmental poUutionY Answer: The President's Office of Science and Technology functions to coordinate scientific activities on environmental pollution in a variety of ways. In addition to providing advice and assistance to the President by evaluating programs and assisting to develop policies, the Office assists in coordinating agency activities through frequent formal and informal contacts with agency representatives. The Office of Science and Technology maintains close liaison with the Federal Committee on Pest Control, including attendance at all meetings of FCPO. The Office also works closely with the Bureau of the Budget in providing leadership in the planning of Federal * Government programs, Organization, and policy on matters of environ- mental pollution. The OST staff is presently analyzing and evaluating the responses of Government agencies to the President's request for recommenda- tions as to how the Federal Government can best direct its efforts toward advancing understanding of natural plant and animal com- munities and their interactions with man, which is concerned directly with environmental pollution and natural beauty. The Office provides a staff member to participate in the President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty. The Committee on Water Resources Research of the Federal Council for Science and Technology has evaluated the needs for research in problems of water pollution by the Federal Government. Its recom- mendations on water quality management and protection are included in the report "A 10-Year Program of Federal Water Resources ~e- search" (1966). The work of the FCST Committee on Water Re- sources Research was supported by the Panel on Water Resources of the Office of Science and Technology. The recommendations of the Panel are reflected in the report of the FCST Committee on Water Resources Research. In addition to the 10-year program for water resources research, the Federal Council for Science and Technology has issued progress reports on Federal water resources research for each of the past 3 years. The President's Science Advisory Committee, for which OS~ pro- vides staff support, has studied in depth a number of major pollution problems and has made recommendations for policies and programs needed to alleviate them. Examples include the PSAC reports: "Use of Pesticides" (1963), "Restoring the Quality of our Environment" (1965), and "Effective Use of the Sea" (1966). At the present time the Office of Science and Technology and the Bureau of the Budget are analyzing and coordinating the responses of Government agencies to 820 PAGENO="0221" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION A$ATEMENT 821 the recommendations in the report "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment" and will take actions based on this analysis. Question 2: Is there a formal procedure whereby Federal activities which might result in lowering the quality of the environment can be revieved in the light of broader public interest considerations.~ (Such a function might be similar to the Federal Committee on Pest Control.) Answer: At the present time there is no organization whose pri- mary responsibility is to review comprehensively Federal activities that might result in lowering the quality of our environment. The Federal Committee on Pest Control is concerned with insecticides, fungicides, nematocides, herbicides, and bactericides. In aUdition, the Special Assistant for Science and Technology, under a national se- curity action memorandum, has the responsibility to review large- scale experiments that might have a deleterious effect on the environ- ment. Major problems of environmental pollution have been evalu- ated from time to time by thePresident's Science Advisory Committee as noted above. The evaluation the Office of Science and Technology and the Bureau of the Budget is presently making of the recommendations of the PSAC report "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment" and the responses of Government agencies to that report, includes considera- tion of establishing either an interagency committee on environmental pollution or a committee of the Federal Council for Science and Tech- nology to be concerned with problems of environmental pollution. The PSAC report made the following recommendations concerning identification of problems and coordination of actions: "(a) The Federal Council for Science and Technology should es- tablish a Committee on Pollution Problems, composed of its own members. "(b) The National Academy of Sciences-National Research Coun- cil should be asked to establish an Environmental Pollution Board, to be supported by Government grant. "(c) This NAS-NRC Board should meet jointly with the FCST Committee at least once a year to discuss newly recognized broad problems and current changes in the apparent importance of those previously recognized. "(d) The Board and Committee should cooperate, through working- level mechanisms such as joint panels, to identify the most pressing broad problems, and the general character of new knowledge or tech- niques needed to study or ameliorate them." Our current evalaution of the PSAC report is deeply concerned with these recommendations. Question 3: What is your view on the "National Commission for Environmental Protection" suggested by the NAS report "Waste Management and Control"Y Answer: In my opinion a high-level planning and coordinating body should be established such as the "National Commission for Environmental ProtectiOn" suggested in the NAS report, or mech- anisms such as were recommended in the PSAC report and noted im- mediately abOve. When the OST/BOB evaluation of the PSAC Report "Restoring the Quality of our Environment" has been completed, we will be in a much better position to recommend what type of planning and coordinating body or bodies should be established. PAGENO="0222" RBSPONSES TO QUESP~ONS OF THB SUBO MITT~EE ON SCIENOB, EESEARO~,. AND DEVBLOrMENT BY Du. Jorn~ L. Buc1~LET, Di~rA £1~IE~T OF TE1~ INTERIOR Question .1: Could you furnish a table or chart showing all of the Departni~ent of the Interior scientific activity in environmental polk~- tioñ by sub,ject and organizational structure; and any formal or in- formal coordination mechanisms with other agencies? Answer: Department of the Interior Scientific Activity in Environ~ mental Pollution: Organ&~tion4Z UnAt and subject Bureau of Mines: Air pollution: Removal of pollutants from fuels; improved com- bustion; removal of pollutants from. stack gases. Solid wastes: Mining and manufacturing wastes; recycling of metals. Water pollution : Acid mine drainage control. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife: Effects of pollution: Especially pesti- cides; acid mine drainage; Bureau of Commercial Fisheries: Effects of pollution: Especially pesticides and radionuclides, pcdlution of estuaries. Bureau of Reclamation: Water pollmtiou: Especially irrigation in- duced. salinity. Federal Water Pollution, Control Administration: Water pollution: All phases. Office of Coal Research: Use of coal in sewage treatment. Office of Water Resources Research: Grant support of water pollution research, all phases. Office of Saline Water: Waste treatment. Geological Survey: Water pollution: i~1entification of pollutants, in- strumentation, hydrology, water quality data. Waste disposal by deep injection. Ooordination with other agencies: ~ Membership on Federal Con~imit~ee on Pest Control and its sub- committees for pesticide matters. Formal liaison contacts for air pollution. Numerous informal contacts. Question 2: What are your views on a policy which would reserve fossil fuels, particularly petroleum~ for `~tse as chemical raw materials, while accelerating the use of electricity generated by means other than fossil fuel combustion? Answer: I personally believe ~that such a policy is necessary in th~ very long run. Known reserves of coal are adequate for the foresee- able future, and it will doubtless be possible to convert coal into gas or liquid fuels. Nevertheless, the twin advantages of reduced CO2 generation and availability of the fossil fuels as chemical raw materials while they are still abundant enough to be cheap, strongly suggest the desirability, of a policy that encourages gradual transition to other energy sources. 822 PAGENO="0223" RESPONSES To QUESTIONS OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE ~N SCIENCE, Rw SEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY Mn. JOHN 0. LOoAN, MANUFACTUR- ING CHEMISTS' ASSOCIATION Question 1: It is recognised that although pollution is caused by many different industries, it is a ckemicäl problem. Therefore, re- gardless of source, how can industrial chemical technology best be brought to work on the solution? Answer: The statement that "although pollution is caused by many different industries, it is a chemical problem" is an oversimplification. Actually, while all pollutants are chemical in character and amenable to chemical technology, it does not necessarily follow that the applica- tion of chemical technology is the most economic and practical answer to each pollution problem. We believe the chemical technology of the industry can best be uti- lized along the following lines:, (a) The chemical industry voluntarily, as well as under incen- tive or pressure motivation, will devote additional attention to solving its own pollution problems. The solution to these prob- lems in turn can be applied to other industries having similar problems. Motivation by incentive is probably the key to more rapid progress in this area. (b) Chemically oriented companies who are in the business of water and/or air treatment can engage in pollution abatement effort for sale at a profit to any industry. This is currently going on and will be amplified and speeded up as the demand `for this, service develops. (c) Establishment of chemical technology information ex- change mechanisms via seminars and conferences aloiig cross- industry lines. This involves the collection and dissemination of data so that maximum utility can be made of present information and new information as it is developed. The Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc., has for some years been fostering such information exchange. Currently the association has a program of 1-day workshops to assist in solving industrial pollution con- trol problems in localized areas, with regulatory officials partici- pating. In addition, week-long seminars have been arranged by MCA at five United States and one Canadian universities to pro~ `vide instruction on the latest techniques for treating and con- trolling chemical wastes. (d) By drawing on the counsel of chemically oriented people in devising control plans, developing control criteria, specifying research programs, and other areas related to pollution control, available chemical indust'ry technology can be fully utilized. Members of MCA's Water Resources Committee are consulting with State agency olficials with the objective of `being helpful regarding the current~ development of water quality criteria under the Federal statute. 823 PAGENO="0224" 824 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT The history of the chemical industry demonstrates that it is alert to opportunities to engage in research along the lines of expanding tech-. nology, including that applicable to waste treatment and control. Hence as new ideas emerge, we do not believe there will be any lack of appropriate development by the chemical industry. Question 2: What are your views on a policy that would conserve fossil fuels for chemical raw materialsi~ Answer: Much of the chemical industry as we know it today, both technically and economically, is based on ample supplies of fossil fuel raw materials. The very substantial known reserves of these materials, however, coupled with the adaptability of the chemical industry to changing circumstances would seem to indicate that any program of intentional limitation is unwarranted. If such limitatiqn were unduly restrictive as to other fossil fuel uses, not only would this result in dis~~ location of other segments of the national economy, but it might re- act adversely on the economic base of the chemical industry as well. It may also be observed that the now established trend to wider appli- cation of nuclear fuels will of itself tend to conserve fossil fuels. Answers to Question by Representative Weston E. Vivian During the Hearings (See p. 410, Vol. I) Question: Do you find any place where joint sponsorship is desirable between the Federal Government and industry, such as pilot-plant operatio'fl$P Answer: In our prepared statement we mentioned approvingly "government-industry cooperative investigation," and would construe this to embrace jointly supported projects, also, where there is a mu- tuality of interest. In some instances this might be brought to bear at the pilot-plant stage; in others, either earlier or later stages of develop- ment might be logical for such consideration, depending on the nature of the research involved. Response to the Remarks of Representative James 0. Fulton During the Hearings (See p. 411, Vol. I) It is regrettable that Congressman rulton misunderstood the basic premises of our statement at several points, and we welcome this op- portunity for appropriate clarification and reemphasis. The chemical industry is committed to the c~esirability of preserving natural resources that have not been abused as well as restoring those which have been abused. It is incontrovertible, however, that many processes essential to the sustenance of life produce waste products for which there is no repository but the environment. Nevertheless, if esthetic values and beneficial uses of the environment are not impaired incident to such disposal,then there is neither measurable injury nor recognizable pollutipn. In recommending that interim objectives be set at conservative lev- els, we primarily had in mind the situation where existing ~ontamina- tion is already in exce~ of antieipat&l. quality standurds. We ~ou1d not propose to intentionally set requirements so loose that injury to PAGENO="0225" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 825 esthetic values or beneficial uses would occur or be continued. Still, it must be recognized as current faót that a clear definition of accepta- ble quality for various environmental uses is not now known. Ac- cordingly, the derivation of quality objectives for any given situation must perforce rely to a considerable extent on expert opinion and judgment, weighing the requirements of what may be competing bene- ficial uses. If requirements go beyond those necessary to safeguard esthetic values and beneficial uses, the cost of meeting them may be, and in many instances certainly would be, unnecessarily expensive without compensating tangible benefits. Experience and changing circumstances may indicate the desirability of eitberstiffening orhber- alizin~ controls, and the avenue to modification should remain open. Uniform regulation is an illusory concept. One has only to contrast a large installation on a small stream to a small installation on a large stream to illustrate the lack of logic in having the same waste contro~Is apply to both. Further, no matter what is permitted (short of com- plete prohibition), an unsatisfactory condition could result from too many separate installations located near one another. The notion is further confounded by wide differences in natural water quality and in the relative priority of various beneficial water uses from one locale to another. 68 240-66-vol. II-1~ PAGENO="0226" RESPONSES TO QUE~TIONS OF THE S~mooi~EnYrEE ON SoIE~cE, RESEAROB AND DEVELOPMENT BY THE TE~NESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY, Question 1: What would be your vci ews on a demonstration bringir~ certain TVA electric generating plants and the chemical plant to a~i essentially nonpoZlt~ting status, regc~rdless of cost, with present technologyf Answer: We would be glad to see certain TVA electric generating plants and our chemical plant used as demonstration facilities to de- velop pollution control methods as fully as~ possible. It is important to recognize, however, that present technology, even if costs should be; disregarded, will not produce w;hat th~ committee has. described as an "essentially nonpoliuting status" for ~ll elements of operations of this. kind. For some of the pollutants, further technology must first be developed. In the case of coal-fired electric generating plants, the air pollutants involved are particulates and sulfur dioxide. The technological prob- lem with respect to removal of particulates has been solved. This is not true of sulfur dioxide, however. Several recovery processes which would remove 80 to 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide are presently under consideration and development, but further pilot plant testing of these processes is necessary before a full-scale demonstration of any of them could be usefully undertaken. Sulfur dioxide recovery has been subject to reviews by many dif- ferent groups in and outside the United States within the past few years, and one or more of the processes so far studied may prove even- tually to be technically feasible. The U.S. Public Health Service is planning to evaluate the processes which presently appear most prom- ising by arranging for the construction of small-scale demonstration or pilot plants at which they can be applied and tested. TVA has agreed to cooperate by making one of our coal-fired electric generat- ing plants available for the installation of some of these pilot plants. We have a meeting scheduled with the Public Health Service later this month with regard to selection of the processes to be used. Op- erational experience with these plants would provide information which is essential to the design and construction of equipment for full- scale application to large power units. As soon as a workable solution has been found, we would be glad to proceed with a demonstration involving such full-scale application to a largepower unit. At TVA's chemical plant, as pointed out by our witnesses in their testimony before the committee, we now have underway a multi- million-dollar program for improved pollution control. This pro- gram, which is scheduled for completion by the end of fiscal year ~968, will achieve very high standards. These standards are regarded by experts as more than adequate but they will not render the plant en- tirely pollution free. . The TVA chemical plant is basically a research facility. We are continually dropping old processes and facilities and adding new ones, 826 PAGENO="0227" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 827 and we cannot now~ be certain what the pollution problems in connec- tion with future facilities and processes will be. In the case of some existing operations, present technology leaves a number of problems to be solved to achieve "essentially nonpolluting status." We believe these problems can be overcome, although to do so might require re- placement of some facilities. We cannot now estimate the costs which would be involved, but they would undoubtedly be substantial. We would be glad to undertake a demonstration along the lines en- visaged by the committee, but could do so only if we were provided with the necessary funds. Questiom ~ How much of a "pollution abatement credit" would the best SO, removal process require today in order to sell the byproduct sulfur or other chemicals competitively? Answer: As indicated in the answer to question 1, present tech~ nology leaves many questions unanswered, and we believe that the test- ing of small scale plants is necessary before answers can be provided. It is not possible, for example, to identify at the present time the "best" process for recovering SO2 from power plant gases or to predict costs with accuracy. Subject to these reservations, we have averaged some very rough estimates made for what are generally regarded as the three leading processes for the recovery of sulfur dioxide from coal-fired generating plants, based on the present state of technology with respect to these processes. On this basis, we estimate that at a 1,000 megawatt coal-fired steam-electric generating plant, about 80 percent of the sul- fur dioxide could be captured to produce about 700 tons per day of sulfuric acid, assuming full round-the-clock operation of the generat- ing plant for that day. We further estimate, also on a very rough basis, that the cost of producing the sulfuric acid would be in the neigh- borhood of $25 per ton, and that it might be sold under contracts cover- ing the large quantities involved for perhaps $16 ~er ton under present conditions. Obviously, there are many uncertainties surrounding these estimates. For example, if sulf~iric acid were to be produced at a large number of coal-fired generating plants and offered for sale, the market for it would be glutted and the price would decline. PAGENO="0228" PAGENO="0229" APPENDIX 2 PREPARED STATEMENTS SUBMITTED TOTHE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE,. RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT 829 PAGENO="0230" STATEMENT SUBMITTED TO THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY RAY K. LINSLEY, EXECUTIVE HEAD, DEPART- MENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, AUGUST 3, 1966. (ORIGINALLY SCHEDULED To TESTIFY; UNABLE To Do So DUB TO AIRLINE STRIKE) I am pleased that I have been invited to come here and discuss with yo~i the question of the, adequacy, of technology for pollution abatement. It is such an all-encompassing subject that it is hard to know where to begin and what to say in a limited time. My problem is made no easier by the very excellent report of your research manage- ment advisory planel which `has discussed the subject wisely and well. A few weeks ago, in testimony before the Senate Committee on In- terior and Insular Affairs, I suggested that one of our problems in looking at water today is that we are in a period of rapid transition. After centuries of slow change, we now find it difficult to realize that very major shifts in thinking ~tre'nëc~ãry. Unlike many other scien- tific and technological developments which have come upon us in a very short time, pollution problems have been developing ~rery slowly for a long time. Our fundamental approach to the pollution problem is as ancient as man himself. ~` `Man started to pollute the atmosphere when he first learned to make fire. He piled his solid waste' in great heaps which today, all over the world, mark the location of his ancient cities. He found that water was a very convenient medium for carry- ing away his waste's, andA~e~ lekrt~ed to wash all manner of things in a stream. Ancient man could successfully employ these rather crude means of waste disposal because of his own very limited numbers. The quantity of waste produced was relatively small compared to the assimilative capacity of the environment. Today,' when the annual* population increase of the world exceeds the total population at, tj~e time of ancie~it man, the situation is 4uite different. Not only' are th~re more people producing waste, but the per capita production is greater. In addition, our technology is producing substances which, when they become waste, are more durable than much of the organic waste of ancient man. Sewers to transport storm water from cities date back into antiq- uity. Because of the prevailing practice of throwing refuse into the streets these sewers carried at least some of the waste washed into them by rain. It is only a little more than 100 years ago that direct sanitary connections to sewers were begun in major cities. These con- nections together with a system of refuse collection removed the waste from its highly visible location in the streets and considerably aug- mented stream pollution. As stream pollution got worse, plants for partially treating the sewage were designed to reduce the pollution load on the streams. Today we find that in areas of high population density the partial treatment of waste is not always adequate.' We are also beginning to realize that we can ill afford to use so much water to dispose of this waste. 830 PAGENO="0231" ADEQUACY OF TEC~Efl~OLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 831 What I have just said can be restated to say that we are beginning to realize that we have a complicated system on our hands. Burning solid waste adds to air pollution as do the gases emitted in sewage treatment. Sewage may destroy the usefulness of a water supply. The automobile, a transportation device, is a major source of air pollution. Irrigated agriculture adds salts to the rivers. Pollu- tion management clearly requires more than the concept of "put it where it won't be seen". We must study all our activities in the light of their total impact on the environment. Science has a principle called conservation of matter. In essence, this states that matter cannot be destroyed. It may be converted into other forms, but its essential elements remain. We would not be far wrong if we drew from this a principle of conservation of pollu- tion which said that waste materials, once produced, are with us always. With the exception of that relatively small fraction of waste materials which man reclaims for his own use and the portion of the waste materials which are converted by natural processes into useful material, the principle of conservation of pollution is essentially valid. When man burns solid waste, he does not eliminate it, he merely con- verts it to gases and particulate matter which may pollute the at- mosphere. If we dump pollutants in the ocean, we are not eliminating them, we are simply putting them where we cannot see them. Con- ventional sewagetreatment removes a portion of the pollutants from the water being treated, but these pollutants are not destroyed. In part, they are converted to less obnoxious gaseous or liquid forms which are discharged through the atmosphere or to a water body. In part, they remain as solids which must be "disposed of" in some way. When we bury solid waste in a sanitary land fill, it disappears from view, but it is still there. Water moving .through the fill may leach material from the waste and carry it to the ground water or to another stream for years after the original disposal. A few cities are now requiring every home to have a garbage grinder. This greatly eases their problem of garbage collection, but at the expense of increasing the magnitude of their seWage treatment problem. Solid waste is being changed to stream ?olhition. This may indeed be the most economic solution for the individual city, but what of the cities downriver whose water is more polluted? Apply- ing salt is an effective means of snow removal from roads and streets, but melting snow and rain must eventually carry this salt to a stream or the ground water. it is probably true that conventional means of dealing with pollu- tion could, if pursued with vigor and sufficient funds, provide a short term solution to our problem.. That is to say, a substantial investment in present technology might alleviate our problems for a few years. Not only would the expenditure be very large, perhaps more than we can really afford to pay, but such an approach might have another most undesirable effect. It could lull us into believing that we have the situation in hand, as we have been lulled in the immediate past. if this led to a failure to prosecute an effective research program on new technology, We would eventually find ourselves in a position which is even worse than our present one, but with nothing better by way of a solution. It is interesting to speculate where we might be today if we had recognized the environmental pollution problem in 1946 and PAGENO="0232" 832 ADEQUACY `OF. TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT had started to work on it at a rate of 10, percén~ of our ~xpenditures on space research. `I have described our problem as a systems problem. Let mehasten to say that I do not suggest that this i.s the sort of systems problem that can be written down in mathematical expressions arid answers derived in a few minutes or even a few hours time on a computer. I ~ay.this for two reasons. First, and foremost, we simply do not know enough about our problem to write the n~cessary. expressions. "Sec- ondly, if we could `write the necessary equations, there is every reason to believe that we do not have' today a computer big enough to solve them. But a sy~terns problem does not have to be solved by a mathe- `matical' equation and a computer. Basically, a systems analysis re- quires `that we know something about the goals. which we are striving for;'and the capabilities and costs of solution1s which would contribute to these goals. With systems analysis techniques, we would then seek to find the optimum combination of solutions for the attainment of our stated goals. Systems analysis requires an orderly, but not necessarily mathematical approach, to a problem. If we wish to approach the pollution system realistically~ we must do several things.. `These are: (1) Define with reasonable accuracy the sources and quantities' of.pollutants now and estimate these data for future years. (2) Identify the effects of these pollutants on man. (`3) Define with considerable clarity our goals for pollution abatement. (4) Describe the technically feasible methods of dealing with each ~najor pollution source with reasonable cost estimates. (5) On the basis of the foregoing information, determine the most efficient c~ombination of methods to deal with the problem. There is little, hope thait we can or will deal with the total environ- mental pollution problem as a single systems analysis problem.. It is too big and would take too long. Indeed, it may never be fully solved. New sources of pollution will develop. New abatement techniques will be found. The details of the problem will shift continuously. However,' if' we approach the problem systematically, we can hope that our efforts will yield the maximum possible achievement. Pollution is the sum total of many different substance's from many sources. The need for an inve.ntbry of these substances seems obvious, yet I know of no such inventory. Some pollutants are more harmful than others; `some are easier to deal'with. With a reasonably accurate in~ventory as a start we can begin to identify those. substances and sources for which abatement `offers the most immediate payoff. Be- cause we are planning for the future' we need' estimates of future pol- lution sources and `substances. Most important are some educated guesses at which substances, now nonexistent or utlimportant, might be problems in the future. The problems which can be recognized in advance may never become problems. The inventory would seem to be a responsibility of the Federal Government and one which should pro- ceed as rapidly as possible. In a sense it parallels the inventory re- sponsibility of the Federal Water Resources Council, but the pollution inventory is a much more complex job than a Waiter supply and demand `inventory. Item. 2 of my' list requires definition' of the effects of various. poHu~ tants on man. This includes direct physical effects on health, eco- PAGENO="0233" ADEQTJACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLTITION ABATEMENT 833 nomic, and social impacts, and indirect effects through damage, to various ecologic communities. `Merely to secure this kind of information involves a major research effort. Reasonably precise determination of the public health impact of pollution is a major project because of the very large number ,of pollutants, the difFering forms of pollution-air, water, and land-and' the differing exposures to pollution. Clearly, however, if there is any element of pollution which is a health hazard, it must be eliminated. An understanding of the actual health hazards would provide a very positive goal with respect to certain' pollutants.' The ecologic impact of pollution is an elTen larger and more complicated research tOpic. The number of pollutants, the differing forms of pollution, and the differing exposures all remain and are compounded by the very h~rge number of ecologic communities which need to be considered. The effects of pollution on fish involve considerably more than the mere poisoning of the fish themselves by direct contact with pollutants. Pollutants which in themselves would do no harm to fish may in some way break the food chain and seriously interfere with fish production. Even in evaluating the effect of a specific pollutant on fish, there are problems with respect to the young fingerling, the adult fish, the spawning fish, and fish egg, and so forth. ,A test ma'de'on a group of fingerling in a tank may not at all disclose the true impact of a pothi- tant which may not be sufficient to kill the fingerling fish, but which might in some way prevent the hatching of fish from their spawn. A considerable body of information on the physical effects of pollu- tion on man and his environment is available. One suspects that it needs to be organized and that this process would disclose gaps which need to be filled by systematic investigation. The economic impact of pollution is a relatively untouched problem area. Air pollution is `known' to damage certain crops. Is `the crop loss suffered as a result of air pollution a significant cost to the Nation? Does it in itself justify the cost of air pollution control? Does it in combination with other losses justify the cost of air pollution control? Increased salinity of water imposes an additional cost on downstream users, `both agri- cultural and industrial. `How big are these costs? ,We have only yet begun to assess such factors. Economic factors may not be decisive in decisions on pollution abatement but they should certainly pl'ay an' important role. The task of assembling this information ~hould be relatively small as compared to other tasks in pollution abatement planning. The debate on poiltition control has strong esthetic, overtones.' Peo- ple are offended, by the appearance of a polluted stream or in èome cases by the mere knowledge that' it is polluted. To the extent these intangible factors enter our decisions, we need to know more ac- curately than we do how the public perceives `pollution problems. Basically, we are all `against pollution, just as we are against sin. But being against pollution and being willing to spend perhaps, a hundred billion dollars to effect a fairly slight visual change which would go unnOticed by most of the population' may not be justified. We have many other uses to' which $100 billion may well be spent. Quam~titative procedures in the social' sciences are less well devefoped than ~n other areas but the importance. of fbi's problem should make it an intriguing research area for the so&al scieiftist. `In fact, I have an `engineering PAGENO="0234" 8~4 4DEQUA~, OF TECHNQLOGY~ FO1~ EOLLU'tION ABATEMENT student at Stanford who intends to do his doctoral dissertation on this very subject. Once the inventory of pollution sources and evaluation of effects of pollution are complete it is necessary to move to step No 8, definition of goals. It is easy to say that we wish to abate, mitigate, control, or eliminate pollution. What do these words really mean.? We cannot return our air and our streams to a pristine purity which might have existed before'man came to this world. Man is here to stay. He creates waste. Pollution is inevitable. We need realistic goals in terifis of types and levels of pollution we will tolerate. These may. be regiphal rather than national goals because of regional differences in environ- ment. Whatever their form, a systematic' approach to pollution abate- ment is impossible without them. Having defined the problem and the goals, we `need to know what `techniques of abatement are available to us. It is here that we urgently need imagination and innovation. We already pretty well know what to expect of conventional techniques but what possibilities lie ahead in new methods pf waste treatment? For~ example, toilet wastes and garbage which is passed through garbage grinders constitute a very large fraction of the organic pollution from the ordinary home (and require a substantial part of the water used in that home). Suppose these materials could be put into a sealed storage tank where they would not be obnoxious and from which they could be removed by a specially equipped truck and taken for composting. Such a system would have all the convenience of the present system to the house- holder, it might be simpler from the viewpoint of municipal garbage collection, it would minimize water consumption, and would achieve a separation from other forms of trash which might make processing of the other, forms simpler. Such a system may `be completely unsatis- factory, but we have never explored it and we do not know what it. would cost. The substitution of electric motors for internal com- bustion engines could materially alleviate air pollution in urban cen- ters. This is not a simple substitufion. An entirely new system of transportation is involved. It does not appear to be beyond the realm of possibility, and in addition to alleviating air pollution, might also materially help in solving the traffic problem of urban areas and pos- `sibly make major contributions to highway safety. New technologies for more efficient removal of pollutants from water, for more efficient removal of pollutants from emissions of industrial gases, and so forth,. are also clearly, needed. Perhaps more important than research and development to produce better means to treat wastes is a' program to devise means to reduce the amount of waste which must be treated, New industrial processes which produce less wastes. Longer lives for everything from lamp- bulbs to automobiles. Containers and wrappers with minimum resi~ dual bulk when empty or which decompose more rapidly after `use. A method of dealing with snow on roads that does not involve spread- ing tons of pollutant. Better use of fertilizers and pesticides so that none reaches the stream. An entirely~ new system for commuting in urban centers which does away with the internal combustion powered car. `1~'hese are but a small sample `of concepts which might be help- ful in dealing with pollution.. In most ~ses such. solutions would help to solve problems beyond those' qf pollution. . , PAGENO="0235" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLtTION ABATEMENT 835 The technological solutions I have suggested represent an area which industry might well press.. The market is large and the returns could be quite attractive. In another area the Government may play an important part. The possibility of economic measures to stimulate pollution abatement has been pointed out by Kneese and others. Gqyernment incentives may also discourage a serious e;lfort to seek ne*~ methods of meeting the pollution menace. Water from Federal ~eserv~oir~ for dilution of wastes at no cost to betiefiçiariès, subsidies to water users which encourage water waste, subsidies to irrigation witi~out recognition of the resulting saline pollution~ aiid su!s~dies for construction of conventional waste treatment facilities alT tend to encourage the status quo and discourage a new look. Definition of problems and goals and discovery of possible abate~ ment techniques would place us in a position to decide on the best approach to solve our problems. Here is the place for systems analy~ sis, be it mathematical or skilled judgment. The techniques are less important than the facts. I am not so naive as to believe that we will proceed step by step as I have outlined. Some of our problems are too urgent to brook delay. We cannot afford to stand still until new ideas are developed and checked out. I am also aware that it is fashionable to endorse research whenever a problem is faced. What I am really suggesting is planned research. Without research we cannot advance. Our research facilities and manpower are too limited to permit its ~reckless dissipation on random problems. We need to study the system w~ are coping with, to assess the most productive approaches and con- centrate research and development effort where it can be expected to "pay off" most handsomely. PAGENO="0236" STATEMENT Smu~nrrED TO TIlE Su COMMI~VrEE ON SCIENCE, REsE~ikI, AND DEVELOPMENT BY TIlE Mu~ CREE]~ BESEARCII COUNCII~, ~NO., AUGUST 5, 1966 DEFICIEN~Es IN RESEARCIX CONCERNING TIlE MILL CREEK IMPOUN~M~NT PROJECT The Mill Creek Basin, a portion of Huron River watershed in southeastern lower Michigan, is under consideration by the Corps of Engineers as the site for a multipurpose impoundment project. if constructed this project would cost between $20 and $30 million. Its primary purpose would be low-flow augmentation, with other uses of `water supply, flood control, fish and wildlife development, and recrea- tion. The site selected is in slightly rolling country and is a portion of a highly productive agricultural region. The topography would allow for a' reservoir which would have an average depth of about 9 feet and when drawn down for flow-augmentation there could be as much as 6,000 acres of exposed earth. The storage capacity would be approximately 80,000 acre4eet, with 8,900 surface acres. The land acquisition would lie nearly 16,000 acres. `The storage allowance for annual evaporation is 14,000 acre-feet, which is 2,000 acre-feet more* than the storage capacity planned for supplementary water supply needs in the year 2000. This evapora- tion is equivalent of 4,591,600,000 gallons per year, There are several smaller and deeper reservoir sites in the Huron River watershed which are in less productive land. These might be used singly or in combination to serve the needs of the community. However, under present laws which restrict the Corps of Engineers to multipurpose projects with "flood control benefits" these cannot even be evaluated by the corps. The original plans for the reservoir are based on erroneous flow-rate statistics of the Huron River which established minimum flow at 21 cubic feet per second. Modern data, corrected to allow for leakage at dams and water pumped from the river for water supply, shows the minimum flow at more .than 75' cubic feet per second. The Michigan State Health Department required that a minimum flow of 50 cubic feet per second be guaranteed for the protection of the downriver communities if Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti were to expand' their sewage treatment plants. It was indicated that this amount would provide a margin of safety for at least 20 years. At this time it is expected that water supply and sewage disposal services will be furnished from outside the basin. Yet the Corps of `Engineers has made no attempt to reflect the errors by revising the storage require~ ments and is proceeding with the original concept which even before corrected data became available was a very much larger, project than had been recommended as desirable or necessary by the Michigan Water Resources Commission and by Black & Veatch, engineering consultants. 836 PAGENO="0237" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 837 The reservoir would impound runoff waters ~rom a catchment area whhth is totally agricultural. Small ponds in the area are weed choked and produce quantities of algal growth. The water quality in this reservoir would certainly be affected by herbicides, pesticides, in~ecticides, and fertilizers, as well as animal wastes. Can these sub- ~tánces be defined as pollutants or is this term reserved for municipal and industrial wastes? Will your committee attempt to establish such definitions and will it be concerned with the means of evaluating the effects of such materials in reservoirs prior to the construction of this type of impoundment? What are the taste and odor problems that might be expected in water drawn from such an impoundment? Do today's water treatment facilities have the means for coping with the chemicals used in moderu agriculture? What effect will agricultural nutrients have on the water quality in the Huron River itself as the waters are drawn from the reservoir? And why does the Corps of Engineers gloss over this potential threat to water quality? Will your studies also attenipt to establish criteria for total land use? Or will water resources take precedence over all the others such as future food needs, green and open space requirements and ulti- mately even the space needs of the predicted megalopolis? When the latter becomes reality the water resources of the Huron River Basin will be inadequate to serve the population regardless of a Mill Creek impoundment. In the future this area will par- ticipate in a metropolitan system of water supply and sewage inter- ceptors because it is becoming impossible to confine ultilities and services within political boundaries. What assistance and guide- lines can be drawn up to assist, communities over the political hurdles when local sovereignty must be sacrificed for the well-being of resi- dents of many communities? The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation has been asked to add its plans for the reservoir to those of the Corps of Engineers. The cost-bene- fit figures are based on absolute maximum potential use of the recrea- tional facilities which would be built into the area. Anyone who has ever lived in this' portion of lower Michigan knows that there are numerous snowless, days in winter and equally numerous cold and gloomy days in summer when recreational activities are nearly non- existent; therefore, the use of the maximum is inaccurate and un- realistic. For example, this is a low-snow-fall belt but Jerusalem Hill in the reservoir area, section 33, Lima Township; is predicted to draw 20,000 users per season for sledding, and tobQgganing. Oldtime residents of the area can count on their fingers the number of times when this windswept hill has had snow on it and no snowmaking equipment is planned. Bureau of OutdOor Recreation's drawdown plan calls for major drawdowns after Labor Day and into October. But are not the low flows most troublesome in the summer months when combined with hot weather? The Huron Clinton Metropolitan Park Authority states that drawdown at Kent Lake "is incompatible with park usage." PAGENO="0238" 838 ADEQtTAC1~ OF TECHNOLOGY FOIL POLLUTION ABATE1\~t]~NT How can we determine prior to construç~tion of this reservoir whether or not th~ese conflicts can actually be resolved? S At least two candidates for graduate degrees in geography have resigned positions with Bureau of Outdoor Recreation in this district because they believed that proper research procedures are nonexistent. Yet the Corps of Engineers must accept the statistics as. factual. Why don't social scientists devise more realistic formulas and guide- lines for establishing accurate cost-benefit ratios? The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation recommendations add 2~300 acres and $7 million to the initial cost of the project and the annual benefit they assign to the project is $1,626,000. However the annual agricultural loss of foodstuffs from this highly productive area has table value of $15 million. How can anyone justify the accrual of recreational and other "benefits" year after year without balanc- ing them against the annual, loss in food production? Is it accurate for the Corps of Engineers to ignore these economic factors? There are at least six alternate sites in the Huron River water- shed for impoundments. If impounding water for low~fiow augmen- tation is necessary for pollution control will your studies provide formulas by which these sites could be studied? The Corps of Engineers is limited by antiquated law to multi- purpose projects which must include flood control. Therefore, it cannot furnish information relative to the possibilities inherent in one or more smaller single-purpose reservoirs, with or without im- portation of supplemental water, and/or interception of sewage ef- fluents. If your committee can provide a guide for obtaining the necessary information to study these alternate sites some of the items which should be included are- A. Volume of storage. B. Surface acres of seasonal pool. C. Land acquisition requirements. P. Present land usage. S E. Character of catciament area. . S F. Soil classification. S G. Present land ownership; that is, private or public. H. Present land production and benefits. S I. Residual effects of present land usage On water quality. J. Appraisal of the natural physical characteristiës of a stream which could contribute to, or limit its usability for, various needs. In addition, further and accurate information is needed to deter- mine the following: A. Amount of storage required with and without importa- tion of water. B. Amount of storage required with and without interception of sewage effluents. C. Amount of storage required with both of the above, low- flow augmentation to improve the quality of lower Huron River. for recreation and esthetic enjoyment. Since it is predicted by responsible engineers that. water importa- tion and sewage interception is indicated probably by 1990, item C, above, becomes .the most important and storage requirements should be calculated accordingly. PAGENO="0239" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 839 The lower Huron River because of its proximity to the Detroit metropolitan area can best serve as a source of pleasure and recrea- tion for the people of the region if it is in an unpolluted condition. Water quality criteria should be established relative to the desired uses and effort must be made to achieve the chosen standards. Possibly the river could be safely used for swimming, boating, and water skiing, which uses are now prevented by Huron River Watershed Inter- governmental Committee's policy of 1960 enabling Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti to expand sewage treatment plants. k To illustrate this we quote the following: Mr. Rehard, who is chairman of the Supervisor's Inter-County Committee ~ pointed out that the National Sanitation Foundation study presents some long term alternatives for both water supply and waste water disposal. It may be that the lower Huron River is more valuable to the bulk of the population in the Detroit Metropolitan Area for the matter of recreation than for waste disposal.1 The March 1966 report from the Fish and Wildlife Service con- cludes: The high fish and wildlife values attributed to this project (The Mill Creek Reservoir) should not serve to minimize the importance of existing high values of fish and wildlife of the lower Huron River and western Lake Erie. The low- flow augmentation made possible with this project, unless combined with the abatement of pollution at its source (Ann Arbor) could very easily result in a large increase of ineffectively treated wastes being dumped into the Huron River. Should this occur the Mill Creek Reservoir project could result in a net loss to fish and wildlife downstream from the reservoir. The Huron Clinton Metropolitan Authority has obtained park sites on the banks of the Huron River between Ann Arbor and thern river's mouth at Lake Erie. Obviously these sites would increase in value if the river could be used more intensively and the water quality im- proved. The Metropolitan Regional Planning Commission complains in its recreation study, 1966, that the "disadvantage of the Mill Creek im- poundment is its distance from the major center of population." Huron Clinton Metropolitan Authority's lower Huron River prop- erties are much nearer and surely would be more frequently used. In view of the foregoing it's difficult to justify the Bureau of Out- door Recreation figures. Is it possible that your committee can devise more realistic methods of establishing values? Would stricter pollution controls at the sources, tertiary treatment, or interception of effluents furnish greater total benefits than flow augmentation to dilute the wastes in the river? Before the construction, of this reservoir is approved a number of alternative solutions should be considered. How can local govern- ments and citizens obtain sufficient accurate information to present the community with choices? For example: 1. Recommendation of the National Sanitation Foundation for long range greater metropolitan area water suppiy and sewage interceptor system tinder the management of the Detroit Water Board. These studies were directed by Abel Wolman, Lewis Ayres, Richard Hazen, George Hubbell, and Louis Howson and give the most completely documented and thorough analysis of the problems of the area, mdi- ~1iIuron River Watershed Ceuncil, executive committee minutes, May 5, 1966. PAGENO="0240" 840 ~PEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION A~BATEMENT eating that after 20 years or so Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti will outgrow the capacity of the Huron River for either water supply or waste water disposal. 2. Consideration of whetl~er smaller reservoirs used singly or in combination for flow augmentation and recreation. The reasons for rejecting the Seneca Dam on the Potomac in favor of several small reservoirs as presented in the Department of the Interior report to the 1E?resjcie~nt, January ~1966, may be, relevant here, and the "pretty little lakes" might be much more valuable. 3. Exploration of ground water resources. 4. Examination of various methods of tertiary" treatment and the possibh~ applications in this situation. Technology is growing so rap- idly that with new methods of treatment, low-flow augmentation for dilution of wastes may be unnecessary in the not too distant future. 5. Analysis andelimination of pollutants at their sources. 6. Evaluation of pumped storage reservoirs as conceived by Clar- ence Velz for other midwestern regions where good reservoir sites are unobtainable. How can the public attack the problem of determining which of these methods will benefit the greatest number of people? Would the National Sanitation Foundation recommendation if de- veloped with tertiary treatment provide a ~`reater control Over efflu- ents flowing into Lake Erie? At what point will the Huron River cease to be able to assimilate the wastes from the treatment plants? Have scientists found specifi~ gages for estimating when these critical points will ocenr? The flood contrOl, which is the means of entry for the Corps of Engi- neers into the Mill Creek project is now acknowledged to be less than 5 percent of the project's "benefits." It is also apparent that flood control devices (channel straightening, widening, and dikes) can be constructed in and around T~lat Rock where the floods occurred 25 years ago. We anticipate that the corps will conclude their study in the spring of 1961~, and we have been chided for not awaiting that report before raising the questions and issues which concern us. However, we be- lieve that if the corps requires several years and many dollars to make its study, those who have to evaluate it certainly need a few months to gain at least some of the basic information. Without such infor- mation intelligent decisions will be inconceivable. It is becoming evi- dent that in spite of the money that has been spent, obvious deficiencies and inaccuracies remain which indicate that the conclusions to be reached maybe worth very little. Is it possible for local governments and the citizens they represent to end a project begun by the Corps of Engineers if they believe it is not in the best interests of the community as a whole? Or is it a fact that once the Corps of Engineers is involved in a project, the decisionmakrng stage is complete? Since the decision to build the darn is irreversible it is vital that every care be taken to insure that the decision is a correct one. To summarize we review the following: (1) Flow-rate statistics used by corps were in error. (2) Disposal of waste water in the Huron River works a hard- ship on the downriver population. PAGENO="0241" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 841 (3) The character of the runoff to be impounded would be detrimental to water quality. (4) Alternatives as recommended by the National Sanitation Foundation are available. (5) Bureau of Outdoor Recreation report is inaccurate and misleading. (6) The Fish and Wildlife S~rvice report is unenthusiastic. (7) Alternate reservoir sites are available and have not been studied. (8) Future land use requirements of a growing metropolitan region have not been considered. (9) Future food needs of this population have not been con- sidered. (10) Thirty million dollars spent for the Mill Creek Reservoir would provide only a stopgap solution, because by 1990 Wash- tenaw County will need supplemental or alternate primary water supply and waste disposal facilities. We have submitted questions relative to a specific situation in hopes that scientific procedures can be directed toward specific solutions. We are sure that similar problems exist across the country and we hope your work will begin to resolve them. Therefore in view of the foregoing we hope your cOmmittee will attack the problem of furnishing adequate scientific inf9rmation and proper sciOntiflo procedures for evalutipn of such projects before they are built. Only in this way can the ~uhlic be protected from tragic and very expensive mistakes. 68-240-6i6-vol. 11-16 PAGENO="0242" STATEM1~NT SUBMITTED TO THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY Burnt ALLEGAERT, INTERNATIONAL PIPE & O~MIcs CORP., AUGUST 8,. 1966 Knowing of the current hearings being conducted by the Subcommit- ; tee on Science, Resei~rch, and Development into the ~adequacy of tech- nology for pollutiqn abatement, we should like to bring to the com- mittee's attention for inclusion in the record certain brief excerpts on this subject from a recent special issue of the Interpace Technical Journal. International Pipe & Ceramics Corp., of Parsippany, N.J., pub- lisher of this periodical, invited leading authorities to write on sev- eral aspects of the Overall water resources development and pollution abatement problems. We feel that the following passages are especially pertinent: John E. Kinney, sanitary engineering consultant, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Questions such as "What is the best way of augmenting our present municipal water source ?" "How must we organize our pollution control a4ministration ?" "What is pollution?" demand specific and detailed answers for each individual situation. Slogans will not substitute for sound judgment, nor will mass mis~ understanding bring about rational results. But research for adequate and valid data is forgotten when a proposal is being argued in the public forum. Details become unimportant because of the grave- ness of the issue. Even basic circumstances are lost sight of, such as the princi- pal fact that we are not running out of water. We have, at best estimates, underground water at shallow depth equivalent to 34 times the annual runoff from all our rivers. There is probably an equal volume in deep storage. The "running out of water" hysteria is nurtured by the assertions that while our present water consumption is 300 billion gallons per day, it will rise by 1980 to 600 billion gallons per day, and that our potential total supply is only 515 billion gallons per day. Doubling our usage in 15 years is an optimistic forecast of growth, to say the least, but it permits the forecast of a national shortage. This deficit prompts the gloomy prophecy that we must resign ourselves to a fu- ture of existing on "used" water. The fallacy is twofold: Water used is not water consumed. Of the 300 billion gallons per day now used, only about 60 is consumed [not available for reuse]. Most o~ this loss Is via agriculture. We are now reusing water. In fact, we are now using the same water as was used in Biblical times. AnU in areas ~such as the Cuyaboga, the Mahonln.g, and the Monongahela Rivers, we are pumping several times as much water as is carried by the river during dry weather. If that is not enough to destroy the myth, we now use 2,000 billion gallons per day for hydroelectric generation--four times our estimated future potential supply. James F. Wright, executive director, Delaware River Basin Com- mission, Trenton, N.J.: Let us now consider some similarities and differences between industrial and municipal wastes, which together comprise our water quality management prob- lem. From this we may be able to guess where we will be going in the next decade. In terms of volume, the industrial waste input in the Delaware estuary---from Trenton to the sea-is roughly equal to the load imposed.by municipalities. This means that probably for the foreseeable future reductions of the industrial waste load will take at least as much effort as municipal control. 842 PAGENO="0243" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 843 Trends in the quantity of process water used per ton of product indicate a reduced ratio, which is to say that industry In general is working hard toward cutting water demand and waste output. Per capita use of municipal water supplies, conversely, is still on the increase. However, as our ,society grows, not only in numbers but in complexity, our industrial effort moves at a faster rate than our population. Thus it seems reasonable to assume that the ~problem of the future will continue to reflect a rough equivalency of industrial and municipal waste loads. A radical change in p*oportion does not appear likely. ii. Dewayne Kreager, consultant to industry, Seattle, Wash.:, Water management starts with sound standards of pollution control. Only relatively pure water can be used again and again. And our water shortage problems can never be solved unless we can use present supplies many times over. This multiple reuse requires water quality standards that are compatible with the greatest number of reasonable water uses in an area and commensurate with public health, but not necessarily permissive of all water uses possible in an area. Industry needs standards that can be administered, that are administered, and against which industry can measure its own performance or judge its risk in further capital Investment. There remains the problem of paying for these water management programs. These national public interest aspects of water management suggest that an- other requirement for solving the Nation's water problems at a reasonable cost is an incentive for water purification by private industry as well as government. The conclusion seems logical that to supplement public expenditures for water purification, water movement, and water management, the principles of rapid tax amortization or the investment tax' credit may well be used to stimulate private capital investment in required water pollution abatement facilities.. We have tried through this special issue of the Interpace Technical Journal to advance the understanding of problems that must be solved in pollution abatement and water resources development. We hope that the committee will find it helpful and informative in their current deliberations. PAGENO="0244" STATEMENT SVEMITTEDTO THE SUBCoMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT B)~ DR. RENE Du~os, THE ROCKEFELLER UNIVER. SITY~ AUGUST 9, 1960 The following ~tatement appears on paged of the Advisory Pan~l's report on The 4dequaey of T~chnolog3i~ for Pollution Abatement No evidence has yet been produced that low levels of ~OlIution have unfa~ vorable effects on humanhealth. Similar `si~epticism concerning th~ potential hea'th ~langers of idr pollution has been expressed elsewhere by Prof. A. Wolman. In his usual pithy manner, Professor Wolman sugg~sted that air pollution is principally an "esthetic affliction." If exhaust~ga~ emitted by a diesel bt~s h~d a fragrant aroma, or worse ~ led to physiological addiction, n~t' many people would complain about traflic fumes. - * There is no cloitht unfortun~tely that air polltitio~i. is mQre than aiii esthetic affliction, and that it always results in various forms of physik ological suffering and economic loss. How then to account for~ the statement made by Professor Wolman? a statement which is the more surprising because he is such a ~`reat scholar and has associations with Johns Hopkins University and its prestigious school of medicine and publiá health. The reason for the failure to demonstrate convincingly the dangers of environmental pollutants is that biomedical scientists have become conditioned to regard as really valid only the type of information they can derive from orthodox laboratory techniques. This attitude has led them to emphasize the pathological effects that occur rapidly and that are the manifestations of fairly direct and clear cause-effect re- lationships. Admittedly, the effects of environmental pollutants are riot very impressive in this light. In fact, one might well gain the im- pression that air pollution is of no consequence because experimental animals and probably human beings also readily develop tolerance and even cross tolerance to the acute injurious effects of a variety of irritating substances. The dangers to health posed by the usual levels of environmental pollution, and of air pollution in particular, are not readily detected because they are always delayed and often extremely indirect in their mechanism. Indeed, as already mentioned, exposure to low levels of certain air pollutants induces tolerance against the acute toxic effects of higher concentrations; but this very tolerance produces various types of tissue damage and other chronic pathological effects that become noticeable only later in life or even in subsequent generations. The industrial areas of northern Europe provide an informative example of the delayed dangers of environmental pollution. Ever since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the inhabi- tants of northern Europe have been heavily exposed to many types of air pollutants produced by incomplete combustion of coal and released 844 PAGENO="0245" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 845 in the fumes from chemical plants; such exposure is rendered even more objectionable by the inclemency of the Atlantic climate. How- ever, long experience with pollution and with bad weather has resulted in physiological reactions and living habits that have adaptive value. This is proved by the fact that northern Europeans accept almost cheerfully their dismal atmospheric environment even though it ap- spears almost unbearable to outsiders who experience it for the first time. Adaptive responses to environmental pollution are not peculiar to northern Europeans. They occur all over the world in the heavily in- ~dustrialized areas whose inhabitants function effectively despite the ~almost constant presence of irritating substances in the air they breathe. It would seem therefore that human beings can readily make an adequate adjustment to massive air pollution. Unfortunately, acceptance of air pollution results eventually in van- gus forms of physiological sufferi~g and economic loss. Even among persons who seem almost unaware of the smogs surrounding them the respiratory tract continuously registers the insult of the various air pollutants. After periods of time that differ from one case to another, the cumulative effects of irritation commonly generate chronic bron- chitis and other forms of pulmonary disease. Because this does not happen until several years after initial exposure, it is difficult to relate the pathological condition to the primary physiological cause. Chronic pulmonary disease now constitutes the greatest single medi- cal problem in northern Europe, as well as the most, costly; it is in- creasing in prevalence at an alarming rate also in North America, and it will probably spread to all areas undergoing industrialization. There is good evidence, furthermore, that air pollution increases the incidence of various types of cancer as well as the numbers of fatalities among persons suffering from vascular diseases. But here again, the long and indefinite span of time between cause and effect makes it difficult to establish convincingly the etiological relatior~ships. The delayed effects of air pollutants constitute models for the kind of medical problems likely to arise" in the future from other forms of envir9nmental pollution. Allowing for differences in detail, the course of events can be predicted in its general trends. Wherever socially and economically convenient, chemical pollution of air, water, and food will be sufficiently controlled to prevent the kind of toxic effects that are immediately disabling and otherwise obvious. Human beings will then tolerate without complaints con- centrations of environmental pollutants (whatever th~ir nature and origin) that they do not regard as a serious nuisance and that do not interrupt social and economic life. But it is probable that continued exposure to low levels of toxic agents will eventually result in a great variety of delayed pathological manifestations creating much physio~ logical misery and increasing the medical load. The. point of im- portance here is that the ~orst pathological effects of environmental pollutants will not be detected at the time of exposure; indeed they may not become evident until several decades later. In other words, society will become adjusted to levels of pollution sufficiently low not to have an immediate nuisance value, but this apparent adaptation will eventually cause much pathological damage in the adult popula- tion and create large medical and social burdens. PAGENO="0246" 846 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOQY FOI~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT It is well known, for example, that highly effective techniques have been developed to control the acute diseases that used to be caused by water pollution. Microbial pathogens cati be held in check by chlo~- rination; organic matter content can be minimized by dilution, oxygen-~ ation, and other chemical techniques; and of course water can be made limpid by filtration. But there is no practical technique for remOving inorganic materials, as well as some synthetic organic sub~ stances, that tend to accumulate in water supplies as a result of indus- trial and domestic operation. Even though clear and free of patho- gens, many sources of potable water are now becoming increasingly contaminated with a variety of chemicals. that probably exert delayed. toxic effects. In this regard, i.t is worth keeping in mind the recent reports suggesting that the incidence of certain forms of cancer and- vascular diseases is correlated with differences in geological formation and in the mineral content of water supplies. While these reports are still preliminary and sub judice they point to a new kind of threat, which though ill defined, bids fair to become of increasing importance in the future. In my opinion, the medical problems posed by environmental pollu- tion will require a kind of scientific research which is greatly neglected at the present time, and for which adequate facilities do not exist either in medical schools or in research institutes. For example, it will be necessary to maintain and study variouS kinds of experimental animals under a wide range of conditions for prolonged periods of time, and indeed for several generations. To be successful such studies will have to be carried out with animals of known genetic ~tructures and experiential pasts. Equipment will be needed to record, retrieve, and analyze the complex data to be derived from the study of large populations and multifactorial systems. The mere listing of these facilities points to the need fOr new types of institutions with a special organization of highly integrated per- sonnel. What is required is nothing less than a bold imaginative de- parture to create a new science of environmental biomedicine. Unfortunately it will always remain impossible to predict from laboratory experiments all the threats to health that can arise from technological innovations. Unforeseeable accidents will happen, as was the case with exposure to ionizing radiations or with chain cigarette smoking, or with the use of thalidomide during the first 3 months of pregnancy. Since it is impossible to test all the effects of all technological innovations, some of them will inevitably have patho- logical consequences. We must abandon, in fact, the utopian hope that regulations can protect us completely from all health dangers in the modern world. For this reason, the science of environmental biomedicine should be complemented by a prospective kind of epidemiology, designed to detect as early as possible early manifestations of abnormality, in the population at large so as the guide. efforts to trace such abnormalities to technological and social changes. Seen in this light~ prospective epidemiology would constitute a kind of protective social organ, as assential to disease control as are the safety regulations designed to protect the public against known dangers. PAGENO="0247" STATEMENT SUBMITTED TO THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY ALEX RADIN, AMERICAN PrBT~IC POWER As- SOCIATION, AUGUST 10, 1966 ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT The motor vehicle commonly is described as a maj or source of air pollution. A report by the Department of Health, Educatwn, and Welfare, published last November, estimated that about half of the total air pollution problem in the United States is caused by cars, trucks, and buses. A report published in June in St. Louis, Mo., indi- cated that 63 percent of the hydrocarbons discharged into the at- mosphere in that city during a 1963 test period were attributed to automobiles. Efforts are being made to control the exhausting of. hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by vehicles, but even the best of these provide something less than 100 percent control. For example, 1966 auto models for sale in California, where a stringent exhaust control law is in effect, are equipped with exhaust control systems that reduce hy- drocarbon emissions by about 65 percent and carbon monoxide emis- sions by about 50 percent, according to the HEW report. A PERMANENT SOLUTION POSSIBLE On this basis, even the adoption of California-type legislation by all of the other States would not solve the vehicular pollution problem; it would merely permit a doubling of the number of automotive ve- hicles without any increase in. the present level of pollution, admittedly too high. Population projections indicate that a doubling of the number of vehicles can be anticipated within a relatively few years, and automotive pollution will rise accordingly. Members of the American Public Power Association are deeply in- terested in what appears to offer a solution to a major part of the automotive pollution problem-the electric battery-powered vehicle. Although it is not likely that battery-powered automobiles would com- pletely replace combustion-powered vehicles, the air pollution problem would be materially alleviated by the widespread use of battery-pow- ered automobiles and trucks. Development of new types of batteries which are lighter in weight and more long lasting than earlier types has stimulated much interest in the battery-operated vehicle. Our association has established a new~comirnttee to promote the electric auto. Battery-powered forklift vehicles, golf ëarts, delivery trucks, and other specialized vehicles are beginnii~g to catch on, particularly in Great Britain. The early development of the automobile proceeded along three principal routes-the gasoline-powered engine, the steam engine, and battery-driven electric vehicle. Some of the early manufacturers switched from one type to the other; all types `had certain advantages. 847 PAGENO="0248" 848 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT SIMPLICITY AND RELIABILITY NOThD A description of the battery-powered automobile of the turn of th~ century indicates that it had reached an enviable position.. "Evolution of the American Automobile," by Daniel D. Gage and Anne C. Garri- son in Business Topics, published by Michigan State University, Autunm 1965, notes `that- It was the ultimate In simplicity and reliability, starting immediately with the turn of a switch, moving silently, increasing speed with utmost smoothness. Anyone could learn to drive it with finesse in five minutes. Consequently, it became identified with lady cl4vers and older people who were not concerned with dash and dreams of glory. Like its upholstery, its public Image was dove grey. Its top speed did not excee4' 25 miles an hour, and ItS range was limited by the need for recharging the storage batteries every 60 miles, either at a public garage or by means of expensive home equipment. As a passenger car, the electric car held `on until, the first World War, but the electric truck for street or In-factory use was revived 25 years later. The same article notes that after the gasoline internal combustion powerplant won out over steam and electricity- For over half a century englneering Ingenuity has been, devoted to improving the piston engine, which is basically an over~elaborate and unsatisfactory source of power.''It may have been the challenge of perfecting this imperfect machine attracted designing talent to it rather than to the steam or electric Cai', RESEARCH EFFORT NEEDED Whatever its merits `as a source of automotive propulsion, the gaso- line engine is choking our civilization with its fumes. While con- tinuing to perfect this" "overelaborate and unsatisfactory source of power" to diminish its contribution to our air pollution, it would be desirable~ also, to' devote engindering talent to the battery-driven ve- hicle, which appears to have many uses in our urbanized society today. A study by the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., at Buffalo, N.Y.,. last year, made for the Commerce Department; suggested the desirability of two distinct types of `vehicles, one for urban use and one for interurban highway travel. The Cornell group predicted that a major market for electric autOmobiles, primarily for urban use, will appear by 1980, pointing out that the electrically powered car creates no air pollution and, perhaps more persuasive to potential buyers, has operating costs which are considerably less than those with internal combustion engines forstop-and-go driving. Just recently, an interesting suggestion was made by Columnist howard K. Smith in the June 196(3 issue of Washingtonian magazine. Declaring that, there are dozens of things which we can do about city' traffic "when the moment of total paralysis and the incidence of lung t~nd throat ailments finally prove that something must be done" One of these could be to provide inner city, drivers with a fie~t of drive-yourself electric, two-seater carts, which could be driven for a mile, at'a speed of 20 miles per hour, for ~ach coin put `in a slot. "There would be no fumes, no important accidents, `and no traffic jams caused by a mere 40 or 50 people scattered 1-apiece in limousines big enough for 8." PAGENO="0249" ADEQT7AC~ OF TECTfl~OLOG1~ `FOR POLLt~TTON AEATEMRNP 849 CAt~TLLAOS VERSUS HORSRS~ Tt is certainly true,'as Mr. Smith says in the same coltimn, that there are few inner cities today where distances were not covered faster half a century ago in horse-drawn vehicles than they are today in Cadillacs. So one arm of t1~e research effort into the electric vehicle can be directed toward. designing, specifically for, urban `use, a vehicle which can transport people from place to place at relatively low speed, with ease of stopping and starting in dense traffic. The design of the ye- hick itself requires an investment of talent and imagination. Since there remain a good number of one-car families in America, and since the automobile represents both a èonvenience and a pleasure vehicle, a great deal of work must be done to increase the speed at `which a battery-driven auto: can travel, and to increase the distance which can be traveled without recharging the batteries. A recent article by Edmund K. Faltermayer, appearing in the No- vember 1965 issue of Fortune magazine, reported that Yardney Elec~ trio Oorp. of New York City has fitted up a special Renault Dauphine with lightweight batteries that can propel it at ~peeds up toSS miles an hour, and up to 80 miles on a charge. "The catch is that these are military type silver zinc batteries costing $3,000" Nevertheless, Mr Faltermayer added, several companies, including' Yardney and Gen- oral Dynamics Corp. are pushing ahead in the search for batteries that would cost only a fraction of this. Mr. Faltermayer concludes that while a battery~operated car suit~ able for long journeys is a long way off, a smaller version might be available in a few years. Perhaps he was overly pessimistic, in view of progress which could be made if an all-out research' effort were launched to develop smaller, lighter, and more powerful. batteries. The fuel óell' may offer an oven in ore promising field `for further research. FUEL CELLS HOLD PROMISE * William T. Reid, of Battelle Memorial Institute,, w'ho' is serving as coordinator of a broad research program on fuel cells, declared in a recent article that the greatest promise in providing `eaectrioal power for an automobile comes from the fuel cell. Although fuel cells are not being used commercially, Mr. Reid reported that they are being used experimentally for powering forklift trucks, golf carts, and the like. From the standpoint of electric ñtilities, Mr. Reid noted that the hydrogenoxygen fuel cell, which presently has reached the `highest level of development of an.y type of fuel cell, would run on the products of clectrolyzed water, thus opening up the possibility of an electrolyzer in each home garage, or in service statiOns in residential areas. Batteries presently available' cannot be used effectively in auto- mobiles because they are too heavy and too costly, Mr. Reid said in the same article. But he suggested that improvements can be attained in lead-acid batteries-improvements which battery manufacturers have not been forced to make jn the past because their present product meete the requirements of the present mark~t. ,"Ttere is~ one area ~vhef~e re- search might make a major contribution," Mr. Reid declared. "An- other would be research and development leading to a' wholly ne~ PAGENO="0250" 850 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT secondary battery based on one of the light metals such as lithium, sodium, magnesium, or calcium with a nonaqueous electrolyte." He added that this would be no easy task but, if successful, it would pay great dividends for other electrical stora~ge systems as well as for electric automobiles. Mr. Reid's article concluded that regenerative braking, traction mo- tors specially designed for automobiles, controls, and auxiliaries all will need considerable development. In each of these areas, research could be justified leading to a~ final, practical prototype of an electric automobile. NEW BATTERIES DEVELOPED Within the past year, two new types of electric storage batteries have been announced. In December 1965, the Edison Electric Institute and General Dynamics announced a prototype zinc-air battery ex- pected to be ready for testing sóon~. In February of this year 13~ulton Industries, Inc., announced the successful demonstration of a lithium battery that will be subjected to further development work. During the past decade, the. traditional lead-acid ba~ttery found in every auto- mobile and the industrial nickel-iron battery developed by Edison have been joined by the nickel-cadmium, nickel-silver, silver-zinc, silver- cadmium and thercury batteries. Developmental work also is going forward on `sodium batteries. . An article on developments in electrochemi.cal energy-conversion de- vices, batteries, and fuel cells, by D~. M. l3arak of Chloride Technical Services, Ltd~, Swinton, Manchester, England, summarized recent progress in England, where `battery-poi~ered delivery trucks are ex- tensively used, and where passenger vehicles are being designed for battery operation. Dr. Barak concludes that development work must continue in the direction of lightweight fuel cells with higher outpute; lightweight traction motors, and possibly high-speed transmission before fuel- battery electric cars can become a practical reality. He .repor&ed jhat over 100,000 electric~a11y. propelled vehicles, are in operation in. Great Britain, ii~cluding industrial trucks used to trans- port materials, and pi~oducts in factories, commercial vehicles, mining locomotives, and So qn.', ` `` . , A']thLLIoN ELECTRIC OARS PREDICTED The Electricity Council in Britain inore recently predicted that within 10. years a million battery~-drivei~ automobiles will be in opera- tion I here are four small electric cars being tested on London streets as a result of the Council's. campaign to promote the electric vehicle- two British Motor Corp. "mini" cars, with the gasoline engine replaced by batterles and an electric mo'tpr, and two which are specially designed for electric operation by Scottish Aviation and Peel Engineering, according to a dispatch from London which appeared recently in. the Chicago Tribune. ` The Scottish, Aviation model, called the Scamp, and the Peel car, called, the Trident, are expected to cost less than $1,000 when mass produced. They can go only about 30 miles between recharging,.at ,a top speed of abont40 miles on hour. Batteries weigh ab~i~t 700' pounds in the two-passenger models. The Electricity Council predicted that eventually parking meters PAGENO="0251" ADItQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR i~'OLLUTION AB.~TEME~T 851 will be wired to recharge batteries, although recharging would be done in garage sockets during night, using off-peak electric rates, in most cases. It seems highly important to pursue the design of vehicles specif- ically for battery operation, as the British are doing. This approach may result in vehicles which are most suitable for specific uses; e.g., commuter travel to and from large cities, as well ~ts in vehicles which make the most efficient use of battery power. Obviously the break- through to wide-scale use of electric vehicles will not come as a result only of fitting up standard model cars for battery operation. And a real breakthrough in terms of consumer acceptance must come if the battery-operated vehicle is to have an impact on the air pollution problem. FEDERAL FUNDS FOR BATTERY RESEARCH `There are about 15 Federal agencies funding a total of 86 projects in battery research. Of these, 21 are being performed in Government laboratories, 14 are being performed by 10 universities, and 51 by 24 industrial companies. Manufacturing corporations also are con- ducting research. The Tennessee Valley Authority purchased a battery-operated electric car in 1961 for. study and' evaluation of the possible electric utility load buildup that could occur from public acceptance çf such a vehicle. The car is a Renault Dauphine, with electric motor and batteries substituted for the gasoline engine. After a series of tests on the car, which is called the Henney Kilo- watt, it was concluded that commercial feasibility of the electric car "must await a substantial improvement in performance' capability, particularly in the capacity to travel longer distances." A need for "major advances in storage battery technology" was noted ifl TVA's report on `the' Henney Kilowatt, but it was ~pointed out that research being carried out in connection with the national space program could make such advances possible. In 1961, the Lead Industries Association of New York launched a campaign to increase the use of storage batteries as a source of electric power for industrial trucks, personnel carriers, and `other vehicles. The association estimated that the electricity consumption of a single electric industrial truck would be 7,500 kilowatt-hours per year, or more than 5 times, as much as is used by a window air conditioner. This gives an indication `of the importance of the electric vehicle to an operating utility, particularly when we censider that the bulk of the recharging load would come during the night, when other loads ~tould be very low, Several electric utilities have launched sales promotion campaigns to sell electric trucks, according to an article in the August 23, 1965, issue of Electrical World magazine. , R. & D. SUPPORT REQUIRED A leading proponent of electric autos to combat air pollution has been the Electric Storage Battery Co. The president of `this firm, M. G. Smith, has called upon the President to "make recommendations for research and developemnt of all kinds of nonppllnting devices and spell out what both the Federal Government and private' industry should do to get those devices built and used-universally and in the least possible time." PAGENO="0252" 852 ADEQUACY ~OF TEChNOLOGY. FQR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Mr. Su~ith, declared that nonpoliuting, battery-powered vehicles for low-speed, low-mileage urban transportation are feasible right now. This brief summary of developments is not intended to be. corn- prehensii,~e, but merely to indicate that there is widesp~read interest in the electric vehicle and a recognition that it can substantially reduce the air pollution problem, if it is used as an alternative to the gasoline powered car in urban areas. Widespread use of electric vehicles would require increased gen- eration of electric power in order to recharge the batteries of electric vehicles. In this connection, the question of air pollution from electric generating plants will be raised, and should be raised, in assessing the total impaát of the use of electric vehicles on the. pollution problem. Unlike gasoline burning automobile engines, modern electric gen- erating stations do not produce carbon monoxide, and the gas from stations is discharged into upper atmosphere, not at street level where it directly contamiliates the'air. people breathe. Furthermore, utilities now have very sophisticated' equipment for controlling pollution. In general, it would seem easier to regulate the discharge from a few hundred large generating plants than from millions of' automobiles. The trend toward construction of larger plants, in more remote `loca- tions, will facilitate the regulation of generating plant pollution. In- creasing use of nuclear fuel also will reduce the potential pollution from generating `plants.' ` The members of our association are fully aware of the pollution problem, as it is affected by the burning of fuels to produce electricity, and I am :confident that they `will cOoperate in any reasonable plan to reduce or eliminate such pollution. In addition'tG establishing a, special committee to promote greater "research ~which will lead to a ~brenkthrough" in mass markets and mass production of electric aut~inobilOs, our association, at its annual conference in Boston earlier thi~ ~ear adopted the following resolution by unanimous vote on May 12, 1966: uLEoTnIc VIiHIOLES Whereas battery-powered passenger and `other vehicles offer an aiterná- tive to vehicles' powered' by combustion engines, which Create severe air pollution problems, and Whereas research currently `underway indicates that economically fea- sible battery powered vehicles ~an be developed within the near future if the electric industry and manufacturers push forward' `with an aggres~&vè `Program of re~earchand development, and Whereas the electric vehicle promises to provide an e~eellent off-peak load for electric, utilities, .~ ` Now, therefore, be it resolved: That the American Pubiic Power ASsoeia~ `tion urges a large-scale research and development effort to bring the electric vehicle to the market.. APPA hopes that your committee, in attacking the most pervasive source of air pollution, will recommend the kind of large-scale research and development effort necessary' `to make available a pollution-free means of tra~nsportation for our urban areas. Our ns~ooiation urges th~ committee's support for a~ two-pronged research and development eiThrt. Such an effort would include bpth design o~ new vehicles su'ited for' battery operation and development of lighter, longer lasting, and less expensive batteries which can pqwer the vehicles of the future. ` ` PAGENO="0253" STATEMENT SUBMIrrED TO PEE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENcE, RE- SEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY GEORGE A. HOFFMAN, U*IVERsn~ or CALIFORNIA, AUGUST 17, 1966 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS ~`OR ELEcTRIC AUToMoEIt~Es (By George A. Hoffman, research engineer, Institute of Govern- ment and Public Affairs, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.) I. INTRODUCTION: WHY ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES? Automotive propulsion accounts today for about half of the energy generated by combustion inthe United States. A review paper on the energy requirements of automobiles-particularly electrically driven cars-appears therefore to be appropriate for this first conferenee on energy conversion. The internal combustion engine was not always the favorite energy conversion device for propelling passenger cars. At the turn of the century there were more battery-operated, electric motor cars in use in this country than either steam or gasoline powered. But the severe range and speed limitations of storage batteries in those days soon doomed the electric car for oblivion. Quantity demand and produc- tion of electric automobiles ended half a century ago. But in the last decade or so some automotive trends specifically favorable to the reconsideration of electrically driven passenger cars have developed. For example: Electric motor design has progressed very rapidly in recent years. Improvements in electromechanical conversion efficiency and in weight reduction are now at the point where the electric * motor merits reinvestigation for automobile traction. In the past decade, the weight of batteries and regenerative * fuel cells per unit of stored energy has dropped to a small frac- tion of their value of a half-century ago. The large increase in air pollution from the exhausts of the internal combustion engine has become a serious national problem. The socioeconomic losses due to degrading the quality of the air we must breathe might yet force installation of smog control devices on cars costing as much as the, engine itself.1 Battery- operated electric cars do not contriI~uth significantly to air contamination. The demand for cars per capita is increasing with a related proliferation in diversity of automobile models. The rate of increase is greatest for the second car in the U.S. family, used NoTsL-Tbe views expressed in this paper are those of the author. They should not be interpreted as reflecting the views of the institute nor of the uMversity, or the official opinion or policy Qf the sponsors of this study. ~ George A. Hoffman, `Los Angeles 5mo~g Control," Rept. MR-56, Institute of Govern- ment and Public Affairs, UCLA, March 19~6. 853 PAGENO="0254" 854 ADEQUACY OF TECIfl~OLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT either for commuting or for household4ype. trips, and character- ized by more missions than the first car, but of shorter range. These suburban cars appear the most readily adaptable to electrical conversion. Consumer prices for gas and oil are rising proportionately faster than the pri~eof electricity, and will do so for the foresee- able future, Electric propulsion of ground vehicles is therefore steadily becoming more attractive economically. Automotive energy conversion would be more efficient and operating costs cheaper if nonfossil electrically regenerable fuels were used. For these reasons, the design of the electric car is reviewed here with estimates of its energy requirements. II. GENERAL MAKEUP OP ELEOTRIG AUTOMOBILES Automotive marketing `history shows clearly that it is almost impos- sible to successfully introduce a radically changed car to the. motoring. public if it departs too noticeably from the established demand and acceptance criteria of the time. To be popularly wanted, manu- factured, and sold in large numbers, electric automobiles should con- form to the major characteristics of conventional gasoline engine cars. This requirement spells out most of their basic design criteria. Electric cars should therefore be engineered to resemble or excel present-day cars in most of the following respects: General appearance and diversity of models;' Convenience, comfort, passenger capacity and protection, in- terior design; Performance, top speeds;. Handling, agility, ride; Range between refueling; Costs, initial and operating. After a century of development, the' weight composition of auto- mobiles has been dictated by the consumer to refiec1~ the above six points and others. For the great variety of cars on the road today, ranging in curb weight (takeoff gross weight) from 1,500 to over 5,000 pounds, the weight composition is remarkably uniform, both as to proportions of weight and as to linearity with curb weight. Figure 1 is an illus- tration of the consistency of the weight ratios of major component cate- gories of 1966 domestic and imported models, designed for `the above set of criteria. ` These ratios are listed in table 1 for 16 component subgroupmgs, and are the starting point for any successful design of electric cars. Bas- ing the design on the ratios shown in table 1, assures that the driver at the wheel and his pass'engers perceive little difference in' driving, or riding in, `an `electric auto ~~rsiis ~ conventional car. PAGENO="0255" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT 855 800 1000 kg $500 2000 kg 3000 0 $000 2000 ~~)0O0 kg - 500 kg 08 0 2000 4000 6000 lb 000 0 0 0 400 00 kg * 0 0 300 o0 500 0 200 kg I00 I I -* I I 0 2000 4000 6000 lb Curb weight, W (lb FIGURE 1.-IllustratIve component weight versus total weight of 196~-m.odel automobiles. PAGENO="0256" 856 ADEQUA~Z OF TECHNOLOGY FOB POIiLUTION ABATEMENT TABLE 1.-Weight composition. of mode~rn automobiles Category and subgroup ~ Ratio: (component cveight)/(curb weight) Average value Least value Body: Basic structure 0. 30 0. 25 All trim 16 13 Glass . 04 . 035 Engine . . 145 . 12 Automatic transmission 05 . 04 Suspension: 1 Front . 035 . 03 Rear . 03 . 025 Wheels Tires . . 027 028 . .028 025 Brakes .04 . .035 Steering apparatus Rear axle, driveline 1 Exhaust system . 017 - 038 . 015 . 013 . 03 012 Battery, electrical Radiator, full 2 Fuel tank, full . 02 . 013 . 042 . . 012 . 008 . 033 1 Front-engine, rear-drive modelS only. 2 Water-cooled engines only. Figure 2 shows this undifferentiability either from the interior or the exterior of the car. Eliminating those components that are not required in electric- motor propulsion would at first give the weight composition of electric cars shown in the left-hand column of table 2. It is assumed that the least-value ratios from table 1 represent the better engineered prOduct in current demand. But there are advantageous side effects on each of these components in going to battery operation and electric motors. Some of the weight reductions and a4terations applicable to each cate- gory are also enumerated in table. g, with an estimate of the weight fraction decrease. The right-hancl~ 6olumn shows the finally altered component weight of electric cars as portions of curb weight. PAGENO="0257" ADEQUACT OF T~CI~NOLOGY FO~ POLLUTION ABATEM~P 857 ELECTRIC FxouI~F 2.-Diagrammatic comparison between a conventional Snd an electric automobile. CONVENTIONAL 68-24O~--66--vol. 11-17 PAGENO="0258" TABLE 2.-Weight composition of electric automobiles [Sum: 1.OO=O.47-I--X+Y] Component Weight ratio 1 Alteratiops possible from conventional counterpart Weight reduction fraction Final weight ratio Body structure 0. 25 ~ Gage reductions in frame and chassis allowed by redistribution of concen- trated weights. Elimination of midfloor transmission hump and drive- line tunnel. >~ 0. 21 Trim Glass . 13 . 035 Reduction of acoustical and thermal insulation. Simplification of dash- board furnishings and instruments. Elimination of air intake grillwork. No alterations 0 115 ~ . 035 Front suspension Rear suspension Wheels Tires Steering . 03 . 025 . 023 .025 . 013 Equal front/rear weight distribution. Low CG battery pack clustered near spring-body junction points. Same as above No change do Lighter steering mechanism from low OG, equal front and aft weight, 4-wheel traction. 34 0 0 0 3/io . 025 . 025 . 023 .025 . 012 ~Electricmotors X :Energystorage y I Least value from table 1. PAGENO="0259" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 859 The weight of electric motors divided by curb weight, is indicated by X, an unknown to be later determined from performance and speed requirements. The ratio (energy storage weight)/(curb weight), is denoted by Y, which simply equal 0.53-X. In sum, it appears that slightly more than half of the gross weight of electric cars should be made up of electric motors and energy storage/delivery devices. III. MOTORS, PERFORMANCE AND SPEED As mentioned earlier, the performance (or acceleration capability) of an acceptable electric car should match that of a comparable- weight modern automobile. The performance of passenger cars is usually measured by the time req~uired to accelerate from standstill to 60 miles per hour. But initially, electric cars will be primarily "town-and-country" types of vehicles, and the performance that they should match is the acceleration capability of present-day cars at the lower speeds of 0-30 miles per hour. This implies a prime require- ment that the electric-motor power available at, say, 15 miles per hour be the same as in gasoline-powered cars with automatic trans- missions. Matching horsepowers at 15 miles per hour actually pro-. vides electric cars with better_than-conventional performance up to 15 miles per hour, comparable performance for 0-30 miles per hour, and somewhat less-than-conventional performance for 0-60 miles- per-hour acceleration. The horsepower available at the wheels of latest model cars while accelerating through 15 miles per hour is shown in figure 3, and gen- erally amounts to one-third to one-half of maximum published horse- power. This horsepower is calculated from the manufacturers' published data about the maximum engine torque, the automatic transmission's torque-.converting ratio at stall, the differential gear ratio at the axle, and the number of tire revolutions per mile. PAGENO="0260" 860 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT o,y 0 `*11 ~jstandard performance HP 0.016 W 15 2000 Curb weight, W * 4000 (lb FIGURE 3.-Weight and horsepower available at 15 mph in late-model cars. The formula for estimating the horsepower at 15 miles per hour (HP15) is HP15-_4.76 X 10°X (engine maximum torque) X (converter stall ratio) X (axle ratio) X (tire revolutions per mile) where 4.76X 1O-~=~-~>~ 33,000==foot-pounds per minute per horsepower 4 = tire revolutions per mile per tire revolutions per minute at 15 miles per hour 2ir= radians per revolution. This estimate of the available power assumes none of the various degradation factors,2 conservatively assumed to be comparable in size to those expected in electric motors when in general use for automotive propulsion, and amounting at times to a one-quarter power loss. It 2 George A. Hoffman, "The Automobile-Today and Tomorrow," Proceedings of the 41st Meeting of the Highway Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, January 1902, fig. 6. 150 HP15 0.0 24 W Intermediate performance 0 ) L `7 c~o I -c 0. to 4- 0 a- I . PAGENO="0261" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOQY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 861 may be concluded from the plots in figure 3 that electric motors should be selected so as to impart at 15 miles per hour 11P15-(O.02±O.004)W . . . . (1) the lower figure being close to the mean of standard-performance passenger cars with curb weight W (pound), and the higher figure for medium- to high-performance U.S. cars. The weight and power of some classes of electric motors is plotted in figure 4, based on manufacturers' specifications. Motors were assumed to be downgeared so as to turn the car's wheels at a top speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute (about 90 or 100 miles per hour). The horsepower developed was at one-sixth of this maximum revolu- tions per minute; namely, around 15 miles per hour. The duration and frequency of the power pulses were assumed to be patterned after suburban and light traffic driving conditions. * Automotive starters and EJ Printed motors, forced air DC traction motors cooling, hypothetical pulsed operation o 24 000 rpm polyphase squirrel Industrial AC motors, cage induction motor, driven by uncoolid, continuous use variable frequency converter, pulsed operation ,oil cooled Industrial DC motors, uncooled , contInuous use $000 / / / / 100 , / /, / / / ~ l0 10 100 1000 electric motor. weight, w , (Ib) / / / PIGu1~ 4.-Weight and power of electric motors. PAGENO="0262" 862 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT An interesting type of motor is the polyphase squirrel cage induction motor, oil cooled and driven with a continuously variable frequency converter. This "in the wheel" motor is presently used in the integral motor wheel drive of an experimental army truck and off-road heavy vehicles.3 These automotive electric-traction motors weigh about 2 pounds per horsepower and it is claimed that they can be designed as low as 1 pound per horsepower. Automotive motor requirements are less stringent than those usually employed for designing stationary electric motors. For example: Full-power demands are intermittent and occur only during one-fourth to one-half of the running time. The motor lifetime design need nOt be over 10~ hours of opera- 1~ion. The automotive industry has many incentives to lighten the weigh of motors by increased use of nonferrous alloys. Forced cooling with water or oil is desirable and acceptable. The power delivery of these future automotive-traction motors then is about HP=0.5w.... where w (pound), is the weight of the motor and of the frequency converter. Combining expression (1) with (2), (that is, matching the initial zero- to 30-mile-per-hour performance of modern gasoline engines) gives for the electric motor weight w=0~04W. With X in table 2 being w/W, and equaling 0.04, Y is equal to 0.49. In other words, about 4 percent of the weight of electric cars should be assigned to traction motors and almost half the weight to batteries. It is interesting to note here that the torque performance of the electric motors (when driven at constant power beyond 15 miles per hour), parallels quite satisfactorily the wheel-axle, torque versus speed curves of conventional internal combustion engine automobiles up to moderate highway speeds. (See fig. 5.) This eliminates the problem of driver readaptation to electric propulsion in city and suburban traffic. The characteristics of the motor in reference 3 seem to assure that the electric car responds and performs as a piston engine-powered car would to the driver's acceleration pedal demands under the most frequent stop-and-go traffic conditions. In figure 5 the automatic transmission curve (dashed) is a composite of the manufacturers' data on the latest model cars, whereas the low-slip electric induction motor curve is based on assumed operation at constant wattage after 15 miles per hour. The maximum speed of electric automobiles on a level road can be calculated by equating the constant propulsive power delivered by the motor with the power required to overcome aerodynamic drag, tire- rolling resistance, and any other frictional dissipative forces (the last being negligibly small compared to aerodynamic and tire resistance). "Powered Wheels," Product Engineering, vol. 37, No. 5, Feb. 28, 1966, p. 58. PAGENO="0263" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 863 motor constant ____~i0tOr driven at ~ driven at constant wattag ampirage 50 km/h tOO km/h ibO km/h Exomu~ 5.-Wheel torque versus speed characteristics of conventional auto- mobiles and constant-power electrie-motor-dr~iven cars. The tire-rolling drag force of passenger car tires is between 0.01 and 0.02 of the curb weight and increases with speed. For good quality, properly inflated tires (the lower bound of the band in fig. 6), the rolling tractive force is about (0.01+5X10-5v)XW. . . . (3) The aerodynamic drag force at 60 miles per hour of various 1960 model vehicles is shown in figure 7, indicating that this resistance for recently styled automobiles may be assumed to be 30+0.015(W+ 150) . . . (4) where 30 pounds is the drag force at 60 miles per hour of a driver's body reclining, as in the car seat, and 150 pounds is the weight of the driver. 4 R. D. Stiehler et al., "Power Loss and Operating Temperatures of Tires," Journal of Research (of the National Bureau of Standards), vol. 64-0, No. 1, 1st quarter, 1960, fig. 8. o.e Lii a 0 I.- x 4 0 automatic S transmission C' 0 20 40 60 vehicle speed, v , (mph) 0 80 100 120. 200 km/h PAGENO="0264" 864 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 0 20 40 speed v , (mph) 60 80 100 m -j hi 0 0 U- C-) 4 z 0 0 hi 4 FIGURE 6.~-Passenger car tire characteristics at speed. 4000 FIGURE 7.-Weight and aerodynamic drag of vehicles at 60 mph. Aerodynamic drag of cars is quadratic with speed,5 so that expres- sion (4) may be multipliedby (v/60)2 to yield the drag-speed relation of automobiles to be [0.0083+4.2 X10_6(W+150)]v2. 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 hi C-) 0 U- CD 4 CD 2 ~1 -J 0 Iii I- 2 0 0 4 0 -J 0..~ `4 4c0 ~ 0 0t~~ ~ ~ 100 ~gG0 ~`~Q 0 0 0 2000 curb weight plus one driver (Ib) `P. R. Kyropoulos et al., "Automobile Aerodynamics," Society of Automotive Engineers, reprint No. SP-1&0, March 1960. PAGENO="0265" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 865 The total force (pound), resisting automobile motion-that is, the sum of expressions (3) and (5)-when multiplied by the speed, v, and the appropriate dimensional conversion factors, is close to the total automotive drag power required from the electric motor.. This tractive power requirement is then 0.00267 x{(0.0l +5 x l0~ v) x W+[0.0083+4.2 x 106 (W+ * +150)]}Xv . . . . (6) where 0 00267~1.467, (feet/second)/miles per hour - 550, [(foot-pound)/second]/IIP At the top speed of the car, V, the required horsepower in (6), (with V substituted for v) matches the motor deliverable power w/2 or 0.02 W, (HP) . . . . (7) assuming the use of 2 pound/horsepower electric motors. Equating expressions (6) and (7), rearranging terms, and rounding off numbers, gives the equation of the maximum speed, V (miles per hour) to be T~+(l8o/w+ 0.084+(0.89/W+4.2 x 10_4=[(0.0012/W) + +5.6x10-711 . . . (8) The real solution of equation (8) is a function of W whose intricacies are beyond the scope of this paper. It is sufficient to state that the solution of (8) varies from V==89 miles per hour for W=2,000 pounds to V=100 miles per hour for W== 5,000 pounds, and that 2,000400 >~ 500 km 0 0) C :~2OO 5.- -o C a) -c a, a) C 0 ~ 0-' 1 ~1 0 20 40 60 80 100 speed , v , (mph) Fiouian 8.-Range of electric cars driven at steady speed. More realistic travel simulations than steady-speed driving are needed, particularly to account for accelerations and decelerations. Two such driving conditions are assumed as shown in figure 9. Condition I represents urban travel in moderately congested traffic with considerable stop-and-go driving. Condition II defines engine utilization for suburban driving in light traffic--not on expressways. With the mission profiles assumed in figure 9, the energy expended per trip, in steady-speed cruising, can be shown to be quite small (one twenty-fifth and less) compared to the energy required per trip for acceleration, or grade climbing. By neglecting the steady- s~peed energy, and stipulating that the work done in decôierating is dissipated in heat,7 leaves only the acceleration phases to be considered. 7 Dynamic braking by the motor is assumed, rather than friction braking. Regenerative braking is another scheme that merits attention for energy recovery in electric automobiles. Itis not incorporated in this design study because it extends the range by only one-fourth or less, but at a significant penalty in cotitrol intricacies and costs. Regenerative braking, though certainly technologically feasible at this time, is apparently not yet viable economically. PAGENO="0269" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 869 This acceleration and hill climbing is conservatively assumed to be done at close to the full-power level. (By contrast, in conditions I and II traffic, the median engine utilization by late-model cars is usually only about half of the available engine power.) The full- power assumption should compensate for the omission of the cruising power from the following calculations and account for the slightly less-than-average performance of electric automobiles at 30 to 60 miles per hour. The energy expended between recharges is then (0.02 W)X(0.35T)X3600X 550/2656 or 5.22WT watt-hours . . . . (11) where 0.02 W=maximum available motor power, neglecting road-load power 0.35==portion of conditions I and II trip time spent in aCceleration T= travel time available between recharges or refuelings (hours) 3600= seconds per hour 550=foot-pound per second per horsepower 2656 =foot-pound per watt-hour Equating (9) with (11) gives both the urban and suburban driving time between recharges to be T=0.086d hours. The variability in city-driving characteristics is greatest in the block speed (total trip length divided by total trip time), achieved in a variety of settings and locations, traffic conditions and driver be- havior. It is only too well known that block speeds of 20 miles per hour and even lower are still experienced at peak traffic hours in densely populated regions, while block speeds of 40 miles per hour or higher can occasionally be achieved in some suburban driving at off-peak times. The range of city-driven electric cars is therefore presented in figure 10 for a variety of block speeds, this range being simply Tx (block speed). Condition IE suburban driving FIGURE 9.-Assiuned engine utilization in city-driving situations. PAGENO="0270" 870 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 20 40 60 80 100 battery energy density,d, w-hrs/Ib) FIOURE 1O.-Range of city-driven electric automobiles. Range was only slightly affected by W in the steady-speed cruise mode, and now-under metropolitan driving conditions-the range of electric automobiles seems independent of 1T~. One may surmise from this, that the present spectrum of car weights (from 2,000 to 5,000 pounds) and configurations (from small to large luxurious) available for consumer choice, need not change with the substitution of electric energy for combustion.8 Figures 9 and 10 also imply that conventional batteries are unsuitable for most consumer range demands. Much better suited are the Zn-air, H2-air and other as yet to be fully devel- oped air batteries (for example the metal air batteries such as Fe- or Mg-air), since these yield quite respectable ranges between refueling and recharging. It should be noted that the mission profiles in figure 9 are the most arduous that one can normally expect. Travel along routes with few stop signs or with well-coordinated lights, combined with a driver's more moderate use of the accelerator pedal than the full power as- sumed in (11), could result in ranges up to twice those exhibited in figure 10. They approach the ranges of gasoline-powered cars with a single thankful of fuel. As a concluding example consider: a middle-weight automobile (say, 8,000 pounds), capable of 100 miles per hour top speed, but averaging block speeds of 30 miles per hour in the metropolis, owned by a driver insisting on a 150-mile range between refueling. This requires bat- teries of 50 to 60 watt-hours per pound energy density, and needs 80 to 90 kilowatt-hours to be stored in the vehicle. 8 This conclusion contrasts with the English policy of designing very small electric cars. if any. Furthermore, the massive engineering effort iii the United TOngdom toward "e1ectricam~s" Is erroneous in not attempting speeds higher than 40 miles per hour, or ranges greater than 40 miles. 200 range miles km km km $50 00 50 0 * .- C ~. z ~ N N 3: PAGENO="0271" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 871 V. SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE FUTURE USE OF ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES The societal implications of all-electric automotive propulsion in the future are investigated in this section. The first item is the fore- cast of a probable schedule for the introduction of electric cars into the U.S. market with an ante-facto assumption that the vehicle will prove comparable in design and costs to the nonelectric cars extent at the time. One such schedule was worked out in figure 11. It is based on increasing mass production and mass acceptance of radically innovated cars by two orders of magnitude every 4 years, as has occasionally happened in the past with the help of American manufacturing and marketing ingenuity,. Under these circumstances, it appears from figure 11 that only toward the turn of the 21st century could one ex- pect extensive use of electric automobiles in daily travel activities. Air- battery R Electric motor )R ~ Number of ________ prototypes > of~ produced >~0~-> >produc:d ~:rs Full acceptance U) f Ii 00 o 1 ~ ~ acceptance 4 Ui Ui4 .;` 1950 2000 AD 2050 FIGURE 11.-Possible schedule for introduction of electric automobiles into the United States market. .0 PAGENO="0272" 872 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT The palpable economic effects on the consumer's pocketbook will be important. Consider first the initial (and, later, the operating) costs to the car owner in terms of the difference between electric and non- electric cars, both produced at rates of, say 106 to 10~ uthts per year. The production unit cost-~--and therefore price-for half of the car weight (body, trim, suspensiàn, wheels, tires) should be essentially the same for both types of cars. In the remaining half of the vehicle weight, a major cost jump will be encountered, due to the cost of air- batteries being intrinsically higher per pound-perhaps 1.~ times ~- t~n the cost of conventional car components. Thus, as a whole, elec- tric cars will tend to be. more expensive by. one-fourth than their con- ventional counterparts of similar size and weight. The, m~ss marketing. o~ electric automobiles will require a special (hut not too novel) tas1~: toconyince the prospective automobile buy- ers to pay considerably more at the dealer's showr~om than they would pay ~or gasoline-engine cars; and to trade off this significant incre- ment (one-fourth of the initia~l cost) against the equally significant decrement in prospective operating costs over the ensuing years of car use. The unchangeable operating costs will still be: the interest on the capital, tire replacement, road and highway taxes, maintenance, insurance, and licensing fees. But a sizable lowering in operating expenditures will be derived by switching from gasoline and oil to electric energy. A reduction of about one-half in fuel costs might be expected. Integrated over the years of the car's life, this would more than offset the initial purchase price increase. In essence: one prediction is that electric cars will be costlier to purchase and somewhat cheaper to operate, with the operational cOst savings over the years adding up to a net benefit. Automobile manu- facturers will profit more from the mass production and marketing of electric vehicles that are comparable to present cars, and have the added options of highly intricate and sophisticated motors and air- batteries being substituted for piston engines and automatic trans- missions. Electric utilities will welcome the advent of electric cars: electric power consumption in the United States would about double. The price of electricity might be reduced by one-tenth or one-fifth, particu- larly in view of the heavy nighttime power demands as batteries are being recharged at home. Our mounting problems of urban air pollution,. mainly due to emis- sions from the internal combustion engine, should be greatly alleviated by battery-operated cars. One of the most significant benefits from electric cars in the future might prove to be the abatement of autç- motive exhaust. These emissions are costing society billions of dollars, while degrading the quality of our cities' air. We cannot afford this rapidly growing socioeconomic loss to the Nation. °Lead-acid batteries are i1,~ times as expensive per pound as the average price per pound of the whole automobile. Zinc and nickel, primary candidate metals for fuel or electrodes In air-batteries, are cheaper per pound than lead. PAGENO="0273" STAPEMENT SUBMITTED TO THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT, BY WALTER A. LYON, PENNSYLVANIA DEPART- MENT OF HEALTH, AUGUST 22, 1966 COMPARISON OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN PRACTICE IN WATER QUALITY CONTROL Since public policy in the field of water pollution control in the United States is in the process of undergoing a number of significant changes, there seems to be value in reviewing pollution control policy in other nations, This might help us to gain a. better perspective con- cerning activities in this country. While there is a dearth of statistical information concerning pollu- tion and pollution control progress in other nations, general reports from many of the European nations indicate that there has been a significant increase in stream pollution during the last half century. It is, for example, reported that in 1875, 100,000 salmon were delivered to the retail trade in the Netherlands. Between 1900 and 1915 there were only 20,000 to 30,000 per year. Toward 1930 the salmon fishery on the Rhine had lost all practical significance and its revival under present circumstances appears to be out of the question.' Some European pollution appears to be more recent for example, in 1954 the Grand-Morin, a tributary of the Marne, which drains part of the Paris basin, was reported to have been a trout stream. "Today the rived is dead and covered~ with filthy rainbow-colored greases and hydrocarbons. Less than 10 years were needed for this." 2 THE PUBLIC RESPONSE. TO POLLUTION PROBLEMS / The public response to such pollution problems and to fish kills seems to follow a similar pattern throughout the world. Here is a report from Poland: Recently in an artificial lake in Poland, where the waste matter-containing a fungus that deoxydized the water-discharged by a sugar refinery caused the death of some 20 tons of fry. The press called the lake the graveyard of millions of fish. There was one good point: the public indignation at the news which gave the event greater significance than the actual economic loss, and provided conclusive evidence that the whole community was awake to the problem. Legal action has been taken against the culprits.8 The Polish-Anglers Union now has over 200,000 members and is a leading opponent of water-polluting industries. As is the case in the United States, many voluntary organizations concerned with water conservation are being formed in Europe. Dur- ing the last 15 years, voluntary water protection associations were 1 J* ~T. Hopmans, "The Importance of the River Rhine for the Water Economy of the Netherlands,' Rhlne~Seminar, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Geneva iO~3, p. 1'6'L 2 Report of Senator M. Maurice Lalloy, to the French Senate, No. 1~5, Paris, 1964,, p. 28. 3Joseph Litwin, "Control of River Pollution by Industry," Interi~at1onal Association of Legal Science, Interiiatj~nai /Instltnte of Administrative Sciences, 25 Rue Ch'ar1f~, Brussels, Belgiam, p. 12. 873 e8-24o~--6se-voL TI-.48 PAGENO="0274" 874 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT formed in Belgium, France, West Germany, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, and other European countries. They combined in 1956 to establish the European Federation for the Protection of Water. In Germany there exists a nonpartisan association of Federal and State legislators who are concerned with the problems of water conservation, partic- ularly pollution. In France, a Federation of Fishermen's Associa- tions and Amateur Anglers Defense Union played an important part in the passage of the new French water pollution control law.4 While there have always been professional associations in Europe concerned with the problems of water pollution control, new organizations con- tinue to be formed, such as the Swedish Association for Water Hy- giene, an organization representing bacteriologists, jurists, chemists, physicians, and other technicians concerned with water pollution. A Yugoslav Association for Water Protection was formed in 1963. Its membership includes distinguished experts in the field of water econ- omy, hydrologists, biologists, economists, and lawyers. One of its purposes is to keep the public aware of the need and advantage of pollution control. It is, therefore, abundantly clear that in Europe, `as in the United States, sportsmen, conservationists and professionals are bringing pressure upon parliaments and legislatures to pass stronger water pollution control laws. The Swiss people, by referendum, in 1953, voted `by an 80-percent majority that water protection ought to be the concern of the central government.5 LEGISLATIVE ACTIVITY IN EUROPE - Some countries have already passed stronger water pollution con- trol laws and others are giving serious thought to such legislation. The Netherlands does not have a strong comprehensive water pollu- tion control law at this time. Laws passed during the past 70 years. do give the national government pollution control powers in the major rivers and ship canals. A comprehensive water code was passed in Poland which not only controls discharges, but also indirect pollution by air and soil con- tamination. During the early 1950's after some considerable study, the Belgium Parliament passed a comprehensive water pollution control law. This law is already considered inadequate and serious consideration is being given to new and stronger legislation in this field. In West Germany, the Federal Water Act of 1960 provides, for the first time, a uniform basis for water pollution control through- out West Germany. The act provides for a permit system and im- poses implementation of the act upon the West German States of Laender. Three of the West German States have refused to imple- ment the new law and in October 1962, won a Federal court case which declared many of the provisions of the new act null and void and unconstitutional because it infringed upon the lawmaking rights of the West German States.6 7 ~ Litwin, op. cit., p. 70. ~ Litwin, op. cit., p. .69. ~ Litwin, op. cit., p. 29. ~ C. F. Jackson, `Trade Effluent Disposal and Water Supplies In Western Germany," Federation of British Industries, l962~ p. 9. PAGENO="0275" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 875 A comprehensive water pollution control act was passed in France in 1964. It includes all French waters including underground and coastal waters. It is not limited to discharges but covers "any activity likely to cause or increase pollution by altering the physical, chemical, biological, or bacteriological characteristics of the water." The French act is very broad and leaves the details of implementation to the executive branch of the Federal Government. In the United Kingdom, legislation passed during the last 10 years has greatly strengthened the power of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government and the river boards in the field of pollution control. The Tidal Waters Act of 1960 extended control of water pollution to tidal rivers and estuaries. The 1951 Rivers' Prevention of Pollution Act has exempted from control all pre-1951 discharges which had not materially changed in quantity or quality. The Public Health Act of 1961 requires applications for consent for the continuation of pre- 1951 discharges. The 1961 act and the Water Resources Act of 1963 greatly strengthen the role of the river boards and changes the name to "river authorities." 9 10 Yugoslavia has no comprehensive Federal water pollution law now. Pre-1940 legislation in the various Yugoslav republics still apply ex- cept in Slovenia and Macedonia. Comprehensive Federal legislation establishing water quality standards and classifications are now being drafted.1' INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS Federal legislation in the United States has, during the recent years, caused a significant shift in Federal-State relations, particularly in the field of enforcement. It is interesting to review briefly this area of intergovernmental relations in European water pollution law. As mentioned above, in Yugoslavia the prewar water laws of the Republic prevail at this time. Only two of these Republics, Slovenia and Macedonia, have recently passed water pollution regulations en- forceable within their own territories. They explicitly provide for the treatment of wastes. The other Republics, if they had any pre-Second World War water pollution control laws or regulations at all, these were very general or nonexistent. Each of the Republics has its own regulations for the protection of fisheries and these may require the installation of treatment facilities. In the field of industrial wastes, there is a Federal law which requires that no industrial enterprise may be set up or altered in any way without authorization of its investment program by the Federal Government. This includes consideration of industrial wastes pollution problems and they are, in that context, considered by the Federal Government.'2 As mentioned above, Germany, in 1960, adopted a comprehensive Federal water pollution law which has now been, in principle, declared unconstitutional as it was attacked in court by three of the German States. Prior to that time and presumably still in force are the stat- utes of each of the former German States which existed before the 8 LitwIn, op. cit., pp. 25, 96. Garner, J. F., in Litwin, op. cit., p. 149. 10Lyon, W. A., and Maneval, David, "The Control of Pollution From the Coal Induetry and water Quality Mana~ement in Five European Countries," Pennsylvania Department of Health, Division of Sanitary Engineering, Publication No. 18, 1966, p. 1. n Stjepanovic, Nikola In Lttwin, op. cit., p. 170. 12 Stjepanovic, op. cit., p. 180. PAGENO="0276" 876 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Second World War and these are quite varied and complicated by the fact that some of the former German States have been combined and reapportioned to form other states. Generally speaking, Prussian law is typical in Germany, and it generally prohibits pollution and imposes the riparian concept of water law.13 English law gives nearly all of the specific powers for the manage- ment of water and control of pollution to the river authorities. The Minister of Housing and Local Government merely hears appeals, which is rare. He also is responsible for formulating a national policy relating to water.. In Holland, Federal authority is limited to major rivers of national interest as is the case in the United States. Power over lesser rivers is in the hands of local watershed authorities established by the provinces.15 THE USE OF CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS The princi~1e of stream classification crops up occasionally in Euro- pean legislation. The BeJ~ian Parliament seems to have been the first to consider this prfnciple as is the case in some States in the United States, in the 1965 Water Quality Act, which requires the States to submit water qualit,y criteria which, of course, is a form of classification. Poland is drafting regulations providing for classifica- tion of its streams and this appears also to be the case in the U.S.S.R. and in Bulgaria.16 In Yugoslavia too, legislation is being drafted to include classification of water. In France, the question of classification was debated considerably when the 1964 bill was considered by the Parliament. The French Government proposed classification but the French Senate, after the first reading of the bill, rejected the classification proposal and pre- scribed instead an inventory of all surface waters which would specify the degree of pollution of all the streams. The French Assembly amended the bill stipulating that water quality criteria were to be established for each stream within a fixed period of time. THE ORGANIZATION OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL EFFORTS * When one ~onsiders the organizational framework which exists in the field of water pollution control among most of the European na- tions, one finds an interesting trend to the management of most water pollution problems on a drainage basin basis rather than on a state or federal basis. In Holland, for example, although the major rivers are now and will continue to be under the supervision of the Federal Government, particularly the Ministry of Transport and Water in the National Institute for Purification of Waste Water and the Minis- try of Social Affairs and Public Health, all of the other rivers are ad- ministered by watershed authorities which are formed by the prov- inces, and had their origin in the need of farmers to jointly share their efforts in the construction of dikes to provide protection against the sea. It is very likely that the new laws in Holland will strengthen ~ C. J. Jackson, "Trade Effluent Disposal and Water Supplies in Western Germany," Federation of British Industries, 1P.57, p, 16, ~ Litwin, op. cit., 29. 1~ Lyon and Maneval, op. cit., p. 10. ~° Ljtvinov, N., "Water Pollution in Europe and in Other Eastern European Countries," Bulletin of the World Health Organization; vol. 26, No. 4; 1~G2. PAGENO="0277" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 877 the role of these watershed authorities which now manage most of the pollution problems of the watershed by collecting a revenue and treat- ing the wastes of the communities and some industries.17 The French act is very broad in scope and leaves its implementation to the Conseil d'Etat (Council of State) through state agencies with water pollution control responsibilities, such as the Higher Council of Public Health, the Directorate of Water and Forestry, the Highways Administration, the Rural Engineering Administration, the Depart- ment of Housing, the Higher Council of Fisheries, the Ministery of Commerce and other national and local agencies. The act, for pur- poses of planning and implementation, sets up specific river basin au- thorities representing water users, local government, and other units of government. It also provides for financing, the right to levy rev- enues and even the power to collect effluent taxes from the polluters to compensate for the harm they caused to the general economy. The act authorizes financially autonomous river basin authorities which can implement water management on a comprehensive basis.18 It is probably in the United Kingdom where one finds the most sophisticated decentralized system of water quality management. While the Minister of Housing and Local Government has responsi- bilities in the formulation of national policy and hearing of appeals, broad comprehensive pollution control authority rests with 27 river authorities covering the entire Nation. They are responsible for not only the management of water pollution control matters, but matters relating to the entire water resource program. Each authority is, by law, an independent corporation and is not subject to detailed super- vision by any central government agency although in many of its ad- ministrative duties, it may have to obtain central government consent and its decisions regarding applications for permits to discharge efflu- ents into a stream are subject to appeal to the Minister. The river authority is governed by between 21 and 31 members which do not re- ceive any remuneration except for expenses. The authority has a staff and is financed by contributions from the counties and boroughs which it serves.19 The organization of the water pollution control program in Poland provides a contrast to the United Kingdom insofar as its program is a highly centralized one. The agency responsible for water pollution control under the new 1961 law is the Central Water Economy Office, an office established outside of the purview of any of the existing minis- tries or departments. It is directly under the supervision of the Chair- man of the Council of Ministers and has responsibility for coordinat- ing all problems of water resources development in the Polish Govern- ment. The Water Economy Office is represented at lower levels of government but these are merely units of the central office. The office is responsible for the coordination of all state offices which have any responsibilities in the water field.2° The 1961 act provides for the development of regional plans for the protection of water. In Yugoslavia, the responsibility for water pollution rests with the central government for the more important streams and with the local units of government for the less important ones. r~ his, as in Holland, 17Lyon and Maneval, op. cit., p. 9. isDondoux, P., in Litwia, op. cit., pp. 96-97. 19 Garner, ~r. F., op. cit., 156-151. 20 Litwln, op. cit., p. 117. PAGENO="0278" 878 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT is similiar to the situation which has now developed through recent legislation in the United States where the Federal Government takes an immediate interest in and concern with interstate streams. In Belgium, the Ministry of Health is responsible for the control of pollution. Informal and voluntary watershed councils have been established and it is proposed that their powers and functions be con- siderably strengthened in a law now being considered by the Belgian Parliament. In Germany, very general pollution control authority rests with the water and navigation offices, the water economy offices and the public health and fisheries ministries of the variou~ &erman states. By all means the most comprehen~ive drainage basin organizations in the field of water pollution control exist in Germany. These are the Ger- man Genossenschaften. These public cooperatives or corporations are responsible under state supervision not only for water pollution con- trol but also for the collection and treatment of wastes flood control, drainage, the distribution and sale of water, and many related processes such as the recovery of certain industrial products from industrial wastes. Members of these river basin authorities are, broadly speak- ing, those who discharge pollutants into the drainage basin benefit from the facilities owned by such authorities. These usually include industrial enterprises, municipalities, and water' users. The state government and the Federal Government usually. are members of these authorities as well. Each of the authorities has an assembly composed of all of its mem- bers which elects a managing board. Members are those who meet a minimum fixed contribution. The weight of a vote in the assembly meeting depends on the amount of the contribution or annual payment which is made. The laws establishing the Genossensehaften contain safeguards to prevent certain industries, particularly the mining in- dustry from controlling the vote. Members pay contributions to the operation and maintenance of the waste collection and treatment .sys~ tems which are based on an appropriate share of the annual budget. These charges are based on waste flow, waste composition, or a combi- nation thereof. They are quite similar to the sewer service charges used in this country. The Ruhrverband is perhaps the largest and the most complex of these organizations. It serves a watershed of 1,700 square miles. The Ruhrverband operates 100 treatment plants, 40 pumping stations, and together with the Ruhrtalsperrenverein, its water supply counterpart, operates 20 hydroelectric powerplan.ts and 2 gas works. Two-thirds of the industries in the basin discharge their wastes to treatment plants operated by. the Ruhrverband. Recreational water use is very high in the rural area.. The legislation establishing the Ruhrverband makes its primary purpose the "cleaning up of the Ruhr." The actual rela- tionship which exists between the German states and the Gen.ossen- schaften ought to be a subject of further study. It is clear that the Genossenschaften, or water authorities, must operate within the framework of German Federal and State law. 21 22 21 Lyon and Maneval, op. cit., pp. 12~-2O. ~ Giecelie, Paul, River Basin Authorltie~ on the Ruhr aTh!1 oti Other Rivers In c4er- many." Conference on Water Pollution Problems in Europe, United ~`Tat1ons Publication Ci, II E/Mim 24; pp. 276-282. PAGENO="0279" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 879 In Sweden, the primary Federal agency concerned with water pollu- tion control is the National Water Protection Service. Its activities are nationwide and conducted in cooperation with other agencies con- cerned with water pollution control such as the local health commit- tees which concern themselves with the public health aspects of water pollution control. Applications for permits to discharge wastes to streams in Sweden and conflicts concerning water use and water pollu- tion problems are heard and decided by water rights courts. The deci- sions of the water rights courts can be appealed to a superior water rights court and, if necessary and permission is granted, to the Supreme Court of Sweden. As can be seen, Sweden places a great deal of em- phasis on the judicial aspects of water pollution control practice.23 PERMIT SYSTEMS As is the case in most of the United States, some procedure for ob- taining permits prior to discharge of wastes to streams exists in all European countries. These procedures are usually safeguarded by provisions for hearings in case of adverse proceedings. In some cases, hearings are always held prior to the issuance of a permit. In nearly all cases, interested parties are advised by public notice prior to the hearing. It is interesting to note that the laws of many countries provide for time limits for granting permits. In England, for example, if a permit is not granted within 6 months, the permit (consent) is con- sidered as granted free of restrictive clauses. In Poland, permits must be issued within 2 months from the date of the application. If the permit has not be~n issued, the officials involved must notify higher authorities requesting additional time and stating the reasons for the delay. Officials who cause the delay are subject to disciplinary action. In the United States, some State laws specify time limits for dealing with applications for permits. If no time is set and there is undue delay, applicants have, of course, the right to apply to the appropriate courts. In Yugoslavia, according to Federal Administra- tive Procedure Act, failure to issue a permit within 2 months means that the application has been rejected.24 In some countries, such as Germany, Poland, and Yugoslavia, per- mits for any change in industrial process are required and the question of pollution by industrial waste is considered prior to the issuance of such permits. Most European laws, as is the case in the United States, provide for revisions or modifications or even revocation of permits. In the case of Germany and Poland, compensation can be provided for eco- nomic losses incurred by modification or revocation of. permits. Similarly, many national laws provide for damages to be paid by pol- luters to water users. For example, in Sweden if the discharge of industrial waste water in an area has an adverse affect on fishing, the owner of the plant may be required to pay an annual amount in the form of damages to be used for "the promotion of fishing in Sweden." 25 In Poland, apart from any penalties and criminal sanc- tions, the water economy section can impose a special water contamina- ~ Dyrssen,, Gösten, in Litwin, op. cit., pp. 181_145. ~ Litwin, op. cit., p. 49. ~ Dyrssen, Gösten, op. cit., p. 138. PAGENO="0280" 880 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT tion fine, which is chargeable to the enterprises funds and can be re- lated to the degree of pollution, particularly if there has been an arbitrary ~change in. the manufacturing process. An enterprise to which a fine has been imposed must trace the person who caused the pollution and have recourse to law to recover the amount.26 The French law provides for a wide range of means to compel in- dustrial plants to comply with pollution requirements. The Prefect, a top local government official can order the work done at the manu - facturer's expense or else issue an order suspending the operation of the enterprise and, in that case, "compel the offender to pay his staff during the period of suspension." Naturally, th~ manufacturer has a right to appeal to the F'rench administrative court system.27 SUMMARY Any study of the dynamics of pollution control legislation and administration throughout industrialized Europe points to certain general conclusions. First, there appears to be in Europe, a general movement toward decentralized river basin management of water pollution control and waste treatment. Second., increased pollution of streams in the indus- trial sectors of most countries has had an adverse effect on many of the uses of rivers, particularly recreational uses. As `a result, conser- vationists, fishermen, and professionals have put considerable pressure on parliaments and governments with the help of an interested press. This has caused stronger laws to be considered or passed in most European countries, just as has been true for the United States. Per- mit and classification systems are used in Europe as well as in the United States. In general, water pollution problems in Europe have increased as has been the case in the United States. The public response in terms of stronger laws is comparable to that in the United States. Signifi- cant differences exist in the form of organization of national pollution control efforts. In many countries the, trend is toward decentralized water quality management on a drainage basin basis. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Information for this paper was drawn from two major sources. The primary source has been a study conducted by Joseph Litwin, professor of administrative law, University of Lodz, Poland for a joint committee of the International Association of Legal ~cience and the International Institute of Administrative Sciences, Brussels, Belgium. The study included a detailed review of reports from the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Yugoslavia.. I have borrowed freely from the study and only cited specific quota- tion~ from the study. Much additional valuable information, partic- ularly conceriling water pollution problems in Germany, Belgium, Holland, and the United Kingdom was gathered during a travel fel- lowship sponsored by the World Health Organization during the fall of 1965. 26Litwin, op. cit., p. 42. . 27 Gentot, Michel, in Litwin, op. cit., pp. 87-88. PAGENO="0281" STATEMENT SUBMIrrED TO THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT, BY PHILLIP SPORN, AMERICAN ELECTRIC POwER Co., INC., AUGUST 25, 1966 OBSERVATIONS ON THE ADEQUACY OF AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO SULFUR DIoxIDE The subject of the inquiry; namely, the adequacy of Our tech- nology for pollution abatement, raises not only a highly important question for our society, but is, I think, particularly timely in view of the current deepening concern with the cumulative effect of in- dustrial and biological wastes on our environment. While many of the situations that trouble this generation had their origins in the industrial revolution, it has remained for those oriented toward space, to apply fully the protective technologies to the indispensable bases of human life on our planet-air, soil, and water. In part, this stems from our new sense of affluence and in part from an uncritical view that fails to distinguish between the technically possible and economi- cally obtainable. In the hearings of last January, I pointed out that, particularly for SO2 and other gases in stack effluents resulting from the burning of hydrocarbon fuels, the only satisfactory disposal known is the discharge at an elevated point with resultant diffusion in the upper air. I stated that the ability of a stack or stack system of practical height to lower SO2 concentration at ground level to a value of 0.5 parts per million, even for powerplant complexes up to 5,000 mega- watts, has been clearly established. I also called attention to the fact that much lower levels of SO2 concentration have been postulated in codes and regulations, without any technical or physiological basis for such lower levels, and certainly without any demonstration that such lower levels were at all needed. The tall stack, which is available as a perfectly solid piece of tech- nology to take care of a pressing problem, has been neglected by some planners of facilities which could become sources of disturbing pollution. Ear more distressing has been the reaction of many people concerned with creating and enforcing standards for clean air who for some strange reason have almost totally disregarded or discounted this proven technology. Instead of critically examining the incon- trovertible facts with regard to the performance of high stacks, we find that various paper studies are produced and inserted in the litera- ture in a fashion that exempts them from the criticism of other work- ers in the field to whb~h scientific papers are normally subject. Later, these exempt statements are quoted overseas and elsewhere as proof that high stacks are ineffective. Along with this ostrichlike stance of officials, we have repetition ad nauseam of the bad experience of many years ago at Donora or the bad effects with washed, moistened, and chilled effluents at Bankside and Battersea coupled with massive 881 PAGENO="0282" 882 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT low level emissions from household heating equipment in the much publicized tragic experience of London in 1952. Since, in my discussion of January of this year, I did not offer any extensive proof of my statement, I would like to offer for the record the experience with high stacks in two companies with which I have been intimately associated, in one-the American Electric Power System-over the past 40 years, and in the Ohio Valley Electric Coip., of which I have been the chief executive officer since its founding in 1952. The entire development of this technology is set forth in a paper that a colleague of mine, T. T. Frankenberg, and I prepared for sub- mission at the International Clean Air Congress to be held in London this coming October 44. This will in due course be printed in fulL I offer it for the record here in the highly condensed version (see p. 884). No reading and study of this record, it seems to me, can fail to result in anything but agreement that high stacks offer a highly ac- ceptable, effective, arid so far the only available pragmatic solution to the problem of disposing of SO2. Efforts to remove sulfur from fuel before burning it have so far come to naught. Numerous studies seeking to remove S02 from the flue gas have arrived at estimated costs which make the process totally unacceptable even before the operating problems have been evaluated by actual construction and operation. In making the above categorical statement, I do not want to be charged with the belief that high stacks are a permanent solution to this problem, good for all timø i~ito the future. Very fe~ tech- nological solutions have any such permanency and this is no excep- tion. But it is certainly a solution that is good for some decades to come. Still, since decades have a way of rolling around, there is need for continuing careful studies to find other solutions which can be developed to practiëal application. Economic application might perhaps take anything from a decade to two or three decades. In this connection. there is certainly also need for very careful studies before and after the installation of every major powerplant utilizing the technological device of high stacks in order to obtain a more extensive evaluation of the mechanism of diffusion. Such studies will without doubt provide the students of the problem, and the designers of pragmatic technological devices for coping with them, with a degree of confidence in evaluating this mechanism and varia- tions of thismeohanism for dispersal of S02 so that we con continue to improve the effectiveness of the solution in the years to come without playing havoc with the country's economy. In addition to the studies of high stacks by the Tennessee Valley Authority~ alluded to in my January presentation, further attestation to the abatement possible by this means has recently come to my at- tention. In the July 1966 issue of the Journal of the Institute of Fuel (vol. XXXIX, No. 306, pp. 294-30'T), A. Martin and F. B. Barber of the Central Electricity Generating Board, Midland Region, Nottingham, England, report "Investigations of Sulfur Dioxide Pol- lution Around a Modern Power Station." The High Marnham Power Station, situated in a relatively flat area, has a maximum output of 1,000 megawatts and two stacks, each 450 feet high. I should like to quote briefly from the abstract of the paper: PAGENO="0283" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOOY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 883 `Sixteen sulphur dioxide recorders have been `sited around a modern 1,000 MW power station situated in a `rural area. The recorder layout was in the form of a ring, the radius of `which was the distance of calculated maximum ground-level pollution. The results from their operation during the period October, li~63, to Septeraber, 1964, are `reported. O~a a long-term basis the overall average effect of the power station on the concentration of sulphur dioxide as measured at these sites was small (0.1 to 0.2 p.p.h.m.) compared with that already to be found in the area (3 to 5 p.p.h.m.). Most of the pollution appeared to come from distant cities and industrial areas. The most persistent effect from the power station, amounting on average to only 0.6 p.p.h.m., was to the north-east of the station and is thought to be due to the combined effects of wind frequency and strength in that direction. Short-term (8 mm) power station contributions were often detectable, but under the dispersing effect of the wind, were not usually persistent at any one site. There was no significant pollution from the power station in stable atmospheric conditions, with or without fogs. This is an example of the careful work that should be done with increasing frequency when new plants are planned and put into service. Again I would point to the record that there was no significant pollu- tion from the plant during stable (i.e. inversion) atmospheric condi- tions, conditions which would however, create a great deal of difficulty for low-level emissions. High stacks are an excellent tool when they can be designed into the plant, or even if a substantial fraction of the life of an existing plant is still ahead of it. But what can be done for plants fast approaching the end of their useful lives? Here research is badly needed and some at least is underway. This has taken the form of investigating lime- stone or other alkaline additives to react with the SO2 and SO, present in the stack. The following groups have been active: (a) Paper study of reactive rate of limestone and sulfur dioxide being done at Battelle for U.S. Public Health Service. (b) Study of limestone characteristics by Bituminous Coal Re- search. (c) In American Electric Power Service Corp., a modest re- search program jointly with Arthur D. Little, Inc., has just been initiated. This will cover a small section of the problem that ap- pears particularly susceptible to direct attack at this time. It is not expected that additives would be used full time, but as a means of operating through adverse meteorological conditions. Possibly the most significant research program of all, since it seeks to correct our basio ignorance on the long-term, low-level effects of SO2, is that announced since January 1966 by the Electric Research Council. In this work to be done by the Hazieton Laboratories, Inc., under contract with the council, 18-month exposures of guinea pigs and primates to SO2 levels comparable to those found in cities and industrial areas will be conducted. Heretofore, most experimenta- tion has been at concentrations seldom, if ever, reached even in acute air pollution disasters such as London in 1952. In order to explore the possible synergistic effects of fly ash and SO3 mist, a number of parallel exposures will be made using these materials in conjunction with SO2. This statement has been somewhat longer than I first contemplated. However, the subject is one of critical importance to the power indus- try and is indeed an area in which it is altogether too easy to lose sight of the industry's long history of constructive activity to abate air pollution. For example, the reduction in plant heat rate from an average 22,600 British thermal units per net kilowatt-hour in 1927 PAGENO="0284" 884. ADEQUACY OF TECImTOLOGY FOR POLLUTION 4BATEME'NT to 10,493 in 1962 represents a major reduction in the potential air pollution from this source, since only 46 percent as much fuel is being used per unit of output as was the case 35 years earlier. Further, electrostatic precipitators were commonly employed to clean flue gases in the power industry a generation before the passage of the Clear Air Act of 1963. PIONEERING EXPERIEN(ffiJ WITH HIGH STACKS ON THE OVEC AND AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS (By Philip Sporn' and P. T. Frankenberg 2) 1. INTRODUCTION In October 1952, the Ohio Valley Electric Curporation (OVEC) undertook the building of two very large plants to serve a new gaseous diffusion plant of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. These plants would be located on the Ohio River, one in southeastern Ohio and the other near Madison, Indiana (1~). The net capacities were originally estimated to be 1,000,000 kw for the Ohio location and 1,200,000 kw at the Indiana site. .A1t that time the ten largest thermal-electric plants in the United States had an average size of less than 600 mw. Both new plants represented difficult assignments from the standpoint of controlling air pollution. Due to the economic availability of coal of rather low quality the plants might burn fuel containing as much as 4 percent sulfur, and would discharge at least twice the amount of sulfur dioxide as any previous plant. Further, their locations in predominantly rural areas insured that any inadequacies in the disposal of the flue gases Would be glaringly apparent. Therefore every effort was made to design the plants so that they would have a negligible effect on the ground level concentration of sulfur dioxide after reaching full load operation. 2. PL~.NNING Arrangements were made to conduct wind tunnel studies of the site at Madison, Indiana, subsequently named Clifty Creek, since preliminary evaluation of this location indicated that from the aerodynamic standpoint it would present unusual difficulties. In the prevailing downwind direction from the plant, the flood plain is very short followed by an abrupt escarpment.llke rise of the terrain to a plateau approximately 850 feet above the plant grade. Siti~ated on. this high plateau, at its closest approach to the plant, there is a very popular state park with an inn directly overlooking the plant site. On the same plateau, slightly further removed from the .site, there Is the Southeastern Indiana State Hospital for mental patients. It was deemed absolutely imperative that the highl3r con- centrated stack plume should not descend on either of these very sensitive areas of habitation under any foreseeable circumstances. The wind tunnel work included the terrain shown in areas A and B of Figure 1, which lay in the most critical direction of the plant. It was found that if the stack plume intersected the turbulent flow along the sharp rise to the plateau, it would immediately be brought to the ground around the inn. If the stack height was chosen so that the plume could be kept above this boundary layer, then a definite lift of the plume occurred, as shown in Figure 2. This lift varied between 50 and 150 feet and was so obvious in the wind tunnel that an allowance of 50 feet was made far the "ski jump" effect when selecting the stack heights. 13. THEORETICAL DIFFUSION CALOIILATTONS K~as diffusion calculations were carried out to determine the ground level con- centrations of SO2 at distances well beyond those that could be modeled In the wind tunnel. The Bosanquet, Carey and Halton equatIon (2) was used to cal- culate a stack gas rise and thus determine the effective stack height. With this calculated, the Sutton equation (3) was used to determine ground level concen- tration but with somewhat less conservative parameters (4). `President, Ohio Valley Electric Corporation. 2 Consulting Mechanical Engineer, American Electric Power Service Corporation. 8 Numbers in parenthesis refer to references at the end of paper. PAGENO="0285" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTiON ABATEMENT 885 O5~ 4~444 U, +44, 4,4-4 4-4.4 4-4 44-4 4, LU c > 4-' 440 wc: .4~4, 4-'O `444 `44-4 044 0~4) PAGENO="0286" 886 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT FIGURE 2 Irving A. Singer and Maynard E. Smith, Air Pollution and Meteorological Con- sultants, made almost all of the diffusion calculations for the stacks. These calculations were made using an exit gas velocity of 120 feet per second based on the wind tunnel results. It was necessary to make some choice of the limiting value of SO2 that would be acceptable at ground level. A value of 0.5 parts per million for a one hour period was chosen as being one fourth of the odor threshold, and low enough to keep instantaneous peak b~ow 2-3 ppm. Only strong wind conditions would produce values in excess of 0.5 ppm SO2 and such winds occur during a very small percentage of the total hours in the year. Thus, it can be seen that with regard to an entire year and to the whole terrain around the plant, the actual long-term factor of safety was very much greater than four. After careful consideration of all the data. and with considerable concern for possible adverse conditions during the breakup of the nocturnal inversion, a stack height of 683 feet was chosen. 4. KYGER CREEK STACKS Having determined the stack heights for Clifty Creek on the basis of all the factors considered previously, it became an easier matter to select a proper height for those at the smaller Kyger Creek Plant. No `aerodynamic considera- tions were present and since diffusion studies indicated that a height of 535 feet would provide acceptable conditions both in the valley and on the hills, this was the height chosen.. 5. VERIFICATIOI~ OF CHOICE Basic to the pioneering work on these two large plants was the decision to make the necessary effort to verify the design by testing for both SO2 and dus'tfall prior to operation and for a substantial period after commissioning. Dustfall studies were discontinued three years after full load was reached when it became abund- antly clear that the plants had had no significant effect on this variable. Three Thomas Autometers were installed near each plant to obtain a contin- uous record of sulfur dioxide at or close to ground level. One was located in the valley, Station A, while Stations B and C were on the plateau. A careful review of the sulfur dioxide records made late in 1959, after approximately four years of operation of both OVEC plants, showed no hourly ,mean concentrations above Boundary Layer Effect ann Acictea Rise Over the Hill PAGENO="0287" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 887 1 ppm of sulfur dioxide for either plant. It was agreed that concentrations slightly above that level may occur infrequently on the plateau north of Clifty Creek Plant, with an occasional peak value just reaching the odor thresholds In general it was found that the original calculation of concentrations at both plants had given somewhat higher values than were actually experienced. The most gratifying finding was that the meteorological condition which was expected to give rise to a severe problem, namely the breakup of nighttime inver- sions, with calculated concentrations of 5 to 10 ppm, failed completely to follow the mathematical modeL This model, which did not involve the Sutton equa- tion, was based on the Idea that the gas would all be confined to a narrow wedge of quite limited height below the inversion. Although there was a tendency for the recorded ground level concentrations of sulfur dioxide to occur during the mid-morning hours, there was not a single ease of the very high concentrations typical of fumigations. The results seem to indicate that the more restrictive ideas concerning the maximum size of thermal plants based On purely theoretical fumigation calculations (5) should be reviewed and considerably modified toward permitting larger aggregation of power generation equipment at a given site. It was found that recording of any sulfur dioxide was an unusual event, aver- aging only 1.8% of the daylight hours, with a maximum at the valley station of 3.0%. Night hours showed 502 present only an average of 0.3% of the time. When sulfur dioxide was present it averaged only 0.10 ppm with short-term peaks at some stations reaching 0.40 ppm. The records clearly establish the fact that these tall stacks eliminate ground level concentrations during inversions. Only a small proportion of the observed concentrations occurred at night when the inversions were normally present. When concentrations did occur at night, it was generally apparent from the winds, temperatures, or observations by the plant personnel that no inversion was present. Thus, the inversion which is so often described as a "lid" holding down noxious gases, actually becomes a shield preventing the return of stack gases if they are first emitted at a height, velocity and a temperature which are reasonable and appropriate. 6. CARDINAL STACICS The desigil of the stacks for Cardinal Plant which will bave a total gene.i~- ation on one site of approximately 2100-2300 mw represents, in many, ways, the culmination of all of the information, design and operating e~cperience obtained since the building of Clifty and Kyger Plants. The similarity of this terrain to that at Clifty is shown on Figure 3. Here again, the plant is upwind of a substantial plateau but this plateau is broken by major and minor streams in a, highly irregular fashion. COMPARISON OF CRITICAL DIRECTION AT CLIFTY CF~ECI( WITH 2 DIRECTIONS AT CARDINAL FIGURE 3 ` PAGENO="0288" 888 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT After considering all factors, a stack height of 825 feet. above grade was selected. This was based on many considerations, among which were the following: (a) It was decided that this height represented the maximum rea~onab1e limit, to which the existing technology of stack construction could be reliably extrapolated. (b) The combining of the flue gases from two or more units into a single stack would be beneficial from an air pollution viewpoint and was contempiated. However, the experience with stack repairs at Clifty Creek argued against such a choice. As it is, a single unit per stack represents approximately a 50 per cent extrapolation in capacity beyond the Clifty Creek stacks. Also since regulations covering 502 emissions may be instituted under the Clean Air Act of 1963, it is possible that the third unit might have to have a higher stack than was selected at this time. (c) Since only two units of the total plant development were to be built at this time, it seemed certain that there would be a period of not less than five years operation of these units before decisions were required concerning the third stack. This period of operation and observation would permit ap~ exact evaluation of the plant's effect upon the 502 concentrations in the surrounding countryside. I. SUMMARY-HIGE STACKS It has become apparent that high stacks offer the only presently available pragmatic solution to the problem of disposing of 502. Efforts,to remove sulfur from the fuel before burning it have, so far, come to naught. Numerous studies seeking to remove SO2 from the flue gas have arrived at estimated costs which make the process completely unacceptable even before the operating problems have been evaluated by actual construction and operation. It is possible that high stacks can be accepted only as an interim solution to thin problem. There is need for careful studies before and after the installa- tion of every major power plant having high stacks in order to obtain a more extensive evaluation of the diffusion equations. This might be done along the lines that have been started by the Tennessee Valley Authority (6). Such studies might provide the designer with a degree of confidence in evaluating the disposal of 502 that he does not possess at the present time. 8. TEE COMING ERA OF 2500-4000 MW PLANTS AND 502 PROBLEMS 8.1. The geaeraZ solation The era of 2500 mw-4000 mw steam electric plant is not a fact that needs to be anticipated-it is here. Mention has been made of Cardinal. Recently, an- nouncement was made of a new generating station to be located on the American Electric Power System in West Virginia with an initial installation of two 800 mw units and with a third unit to be installed sometime after 1971. The most likely size of this third unit will be 1050 mw. Thus, for coal burning plants, we are confronted with the need to critically examine the problem that a plant designer will be called upon to solve-to harmlessly dispose of 1250 tons of sulfur per day or 100 tons per hour when converted into oxides of sulfur, mainly SO2. The authors believe that this offers no occasion for fear or dismay. The high stack properly desig~ned can, without question, take care of every require- ment-ecological, economic, and esthetic. A number of special areas in connec- tion with the adoption of this solution warrant further, if only brief, discussion. These follow: 8.2. The muIU-compartmented, integrated stack Such stacks have many advantages from the standpoint of obtaining the maximum rise of the hot gas, the increase in the plume's ability to pierce inversions and the maintenance of reasonable exit velocity when one or more units is shut down. Offsetting these advantages, are the costs associated with the poor utilization of the stack's cross section, the cost of' horizontal duct work required to reach a stack of this type and finally, the question of ability to work on and around an idle liner while the other two or three are in use. It appears likely that several years may elapse before ,stacks of this general type are built in the United States. PAGENO="0289" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 889 8.3. The problem of height, material construction and maintenance In applying vary high stacks, a considerable problem with the aeronautical au- thorities must be faced. This is somewhat mitigated by the fact that it Is already recognized that perhaps in level terrain, heights beyond 800 or 900 `feet do not significantly improve the ground level concentrations. However, in hilly country such as the terrain in which the plants described are located, it is conceivable that stacks as much as 1200 or 1500 feet in height may ultimately be required. Stack design has undergone more rapid change in the past ten or twelve years than at any time since the power 1nd~try's beginning. New materials have been tried, different construction techniques utilized, and new problems have been faced. Currently, the stack design cQfislsting of a rèlnforce4 concrete shell with a low-alloy, corrosion re~i'Stant steel (sr~ch as Corten) lister, appears to be ade- quate after approximately six years service Obviously, it would be desirable to have double or triple this amount of experience `before concluding that it has completely solved the problem. 8.4. The monitoring and buildAng up of technological history The fortunate development of the high stack aa a solution to the su)Au~- dioxide problem presented by large coal burning plants was carried out on the basis of very meager experience. But for the future it is most ithportant that tins deficiency be remedied The anthors most earnestly recommend therefore as new high stacks are designed and constructed that an effort be made to obtafa cjata on the ground level concentrations of 502 for extensive period's before an~ after operation. Needless to say, adequate meteorological Information for the evaluation of these results should `be obtained either from other sources or by special instrumentation at the site. Every generation's engineers have been the heirs to tbe ingenious wQrk,. records and experience co~npiled by and transmitted to them by their profee- slonal forebears. Air pollution representS an area In which today's engineers must In turn develop such necessary data and make it available'to the genera- tions that will follow. RuFERuNOES 1. P. Sporn and V. M. Marquis "The OVEC Project ~conomie, Engineering and Finance Problems of the 2,200,000 Ew, 18,O00,000,00~ Kilowatt-Hour Pow~ Pro)ect of the Ohio Valley Electric Corporation" AIEIII Annual Meeting N V 0 1954 Paper No 54-57 Also presented at CEGRIP Meeting 1954 2. Bosanquet, Carey and Ilalton "Dust Deposition From Chimney Stacks" Institution of Mechanical EngIneers pp 355-367, 1950. 3. `Sutton, `0. (1. "The Theoretical Distribution of Airborne Pollution from Factory Chimneys" Royal ~eteorological Society, Quarterly Journal, 73: 426- 435, 1947. 4. `SmIth, M. E. "The Variation of Effluent ConcentratiopS `From an Elevated Point Source" Ar~hives of Industrial Health, Vol. 14. pp 56-68, July 1956. 5 Pooler, F Potential Dispersion of Plumes From Large Power Plants" Environmental Health Series U S Public Health Service-Publication No 999- AF-lO, 1965. 8. *Gartrell, F. B. "Monitoring of 502 in the Vicinity of Coal-Fired Power Piants-PVA Experience" Proceedings American Power Conferehee XXVII, 1965. 68-240--~6O-vol. iI-19 PAGENO="0290" STAPEMENP SUBMITTED TOTHE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT B~ EAra~ L. WILSON, INDUSTRIAL GAS CLEANING INSTITUTE, INC., AUGUST 23, 1966 As president of the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, I attended your committee hearing on Thursday, July 21, and again with mem- bers of our IGCI Government Relations Committee on Tuesday, August 9, 1966. We want you to know that we are very favorably im- pressed with the work your subcommittee is doing and the knowledge and understanding of the committee m~mbers. We are confident that better and more practical approaches to research on pollution control will result from your eIJ!orte. us first acquaint you with the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute. The IGOI is a national association of manufacturers of gas eleaning equipment. We are concerned with the collection of particulate matter and as an instjtute are not presently involved with. the control of gaseous emission. The IGCI encompasses all four types of air pollu- tion control devices (particulate collectors) : Electrostatic precipita- toi's, mechanical cqllectors, bag filtet~, wet scrubbers. We repre~ent most of the majormanufacturers and an. estimated 80 to 85 percent of the dollar volume of industrial dust collecting equipment sold in the United States. We are in complete agreement with many of the statements made by the witnesses appearing before your committee and in the report of theResearch Management Advisory Panel, and would like to comment briefly on what We feel are some of the flicre pertinent statements. Page 3 of your report states: "Policies which aid the efficient and timely deploymentof private sector scientists and engineer~ are desir- abI~." We wholeheartedly end~rse this statement and that o~ Thy. Buech~ when he says, "Industry has the needed skills and facilities." We believe that such:skills and knowledge are available within the gas cleaning equipment industry. Many of these concems have been work- ingin thisar~a ford 30ôr 40 years. We agree with the ~ta~ement on page 11 of the report that "What the ~tation needs is not the revenue from penalty fines imposed on pollut-, ers; rather, the need is for reduction in the volume of pollutants dis- charged to the environment." Industry needs help and incentive, not penalties. This is particularly true of the marginal operators who could be forced out of business by the cost of control equipment. This may sound contradictory coming from people whose business it is to sell control equipment, but it is extremely important and should be carefully considered. Dr. Beuche said, in his most commendable statement, that the * * * will be completed most rapidly if attacked on a competi- tive basis." We firmly believe in this philosophy and were extremely gratified to note the committee's awareness of, and attitude toward, the value of profit as an incentive. The outstanding example of the value of the profit motive is the problem of SO2 which was mentioned 890 PAGENO="0291" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 891 so often throughout the hearings. As you know, there is no eco- nomical means of removing SO2 from effluent gases. Why? Because until the past year or so there were no controls covering the emission of SO2. As a result, there was no market. People in business do not spend any significant amount of money on research of nonmarketable products. Even today, there are controls in only three or four small areas of the country and these regulations are met by burning lower éulphur and higher cost fuels. The controls thust cothe first, but there must also be time to permit industry to develop an economically fea- sible solution. Qu the question of who is to do what research, the ~hswer was clearly and succinctly stated by Dr. Bueche when he divided research into two categories: * 1. .Research that will produce information use:f iii for establish- in~ standards, determining necessary regulations, enacting appro priate laws and suggesting methods; and 2 Research that will produce information useful in developing hardware and systems that can be manufactured and sold No 1 is strictly within the realm of the Government and ~o 2 that of industry. Also, due to the urgency of the prdbiem, there should be some governmental support of private research. During Dr Bishop's testimony, Mr Daddario, you raised the ques tion of how the ~t~el industry selects a collectdr to do a certain job and why there isn't an industry standard for ~t given application It is regretable that the~re wasn't ample time for Dr Bishop to give a more coniplet~ atiddefinitiVe answer because; ~ this point, ~ve felt that~ there was a lack of rapport between the witness and the members of the committee. In areas such as this, we feel that our institute could lend the committee valuable assistance. In this letter, we cannot go into all of the details involved relative to your steel industry question; but, because two or three types of equipment will do the job required, many things must be considered in selecting the equipment to be used, such as- 1. First cost versus operating and maintenance costs. 2. Available space. 3. Availability of water. 4. Power consumption. 5. Disposal of waste product, wet or dry. In Mr. Arthur C. Stern's testimony on July 21, there is, perhaps, an implication that industry, and in particular the air pollution control industry, is not making an adequate effort in research. We would like to clarify this situation in regard to the gas cleaning industry. Be- cause there is little or no control of gaseous emissions to date, and our members account for 80-85 percent of the particulate collectors sold, we essentially are the air pollution control industry as it is presently constituted. Contrary to popular belief, ours is not a large industry. The total annual domestic sales of the members of the IGOI (no auxiliary equipment or installation costs included) for the past 5 years are: PAGENO="0292" 892 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FO1~ POLLUTION ABATEMENT Total sales Year: (orders) 19(35 $53, 069, 033 1904 45, 742, 415 1963 31, 831, 689 1962 32,402, 895 19(31 29,152,896 Since most of the companies in this industry were operating at close to the break-even point for 10 years up until 1964, it is clear that there was little money available for research. We do not know whether or not these figures surprise you; but, if not, you are one of the knowl- edgeable few who are aware that the industrial air pollution control industry is not the vast, rapidly expanding industry it is so often pictured to be. Mr. Stern also stated that, "in the area of particulate control, device development has been confounded by the lack of uniform criteria, for data evaluation and equipment performanceS" Mr. Stern is quite correct in this statement and this is precisely why the IGCI undertook the establishment of standards immediately after its founding in 1960. For your information, we are enclosing copies of the standards we have completed to date. This, of course, is a continuing task and more such standards will be published shortly. Again, your committee is doing an outstanding pob and we ofl~er our services and cooperation. Since we were not asked to testify, we have taken the liberty of submitting some of our thoughts in this letter. We would be happy to meet with you and your committee if you so desire or try to answer, by letter, any questions you might have. PAGENO="0293" ST~TEMENT SUBMITTED TO TIlE StTBcoMMrr'rs~ o~ SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND DEVELOPMENT BY CONGRESSMAN DON EDWAEDS, CE OALII'ORNIA, SEPTEMBER 6, 1966 Mr. Chairman, as a Representative from a State which has its own serious and well-known problems of pollution of our environment, I am very pleased to be able to present this statement to your com- mittee as you inquire into the adequacy of our technology for con- trofling pollution. The deleterious effects of pollution, for plant and animal life, for human health and comfort, for our economy and our recreational life, are reaching a critical stage. An unfortunate byproduct of the growth and development of America as an urban, industrial nation has been the pouring into our waters, air, and land, the waste of our produce. As we have taken out and used the resources of the earth, we have paid little if any attention to the quality of what we put back. We have reached a point where if we do not take forceful comprehensive steps to clean up oul own filth and to place effective controls on the source of pollutants, we shall indeed stifle life on earth. We are essentially a user society, as opposed to a consumer society. While the streamfiow and the amount of air remain constant, the degree of pollution is ever greater with the increased production and consumption of goods, the increased number of cars, the increased demands for heat and electric power and the urbanization and concen- tration of people. The Federal Government has an undeniable and essential role in reversing this deadly trend. I strongly support the legislation now before the Congress to amend and expand last winter's Water Quality Act and Clean Air Act and I will support strengthening of these bills. We must recognize that this problem is not limited by State lines. Air currents know no State boundaries. Nor do stream- flows. The Federal Government, with its vaster resources, can finan- cially assist loc~d governments in construction and operation of treat.~ ment plants and other facilities.. And it can offer incentives to munici- palities and industries to take requisite action. Nationally coordi- nated research can avoid duplication and wasted money. Finally, I recommend strengthening the enforcement powers of the Government of the United States. I'm in total agreement with the President's recommendations in this regard, as he outlined them in his message to the Congress in February of this year. It is imperative that the National Government take the lead in this fleld both because of its financial resources and its interstate character. But there is the additional and more crucial reason that without this potential force, we wifl not even be able to come close to eletLning up our environment. Without the clearly defined national ~oais, force- fully implemented, of unspoiled rivers and pure air, inaustries and municipalities and individuals will continue to dump their refuse and soot into surroundings belonging to all Americans. 893 PAGENO="0294" 894 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT How many small towns across the country have allowed their prime industry to continue to pollute the rivers and the air for fear that attempts to regulate may stimulate the plant to move? How many of these towns do not have sufficient funds to construct a modern, efficient sewage treatment plant? Instead of air pollution devices- -or `safety features-the' automobile industry has offered an unendmg and ama~zingassortment of gimmicks-from blinding chrome to stereo phonographs-to catch the eye of the buying public. These are, the reasons why Federal action is unavoidable if we desire `to achieve the -goal the President hasoutlined. * It has often been' said that our technology is'adequate to the problem, if only it were `applied. `Although this is not entirely accurate, there is' much to this statement. For, example, no technical advances are needed for alleviating pollution from farm animal wastes, particulate `materials in the air' and sewage effiuents-~-only standards `and regula- *1~i'on~,' `CohtrOls and devices. Pittsburgh's battle against air pollution is justly renowned. By placing controls on `sqot `and restricting the u~e of high-sulfur fuels, pollution in that `city was reduced `by 67 per~ cent in 2 ye~rs.' ` ` Nonetheless, it would be foolish and shortsighted to `s~y our tech- nology is adequ~te to our needs. Development of `feasibie technology has been hindered by some impdrtant factors which'we might consider attMs ~oint. ~, First; it has been shown'that there is not sufficient com- munication ef the knowledge we' do' have-particularly between the resOarch scientist `aiid' the engineer~ More work' iS needed in both jasic and applied~researeh `but the work `of the `s'elèntist and enginee~ must htteract in ordertostim~ul'ate progreSs on'both ends. "We cannot overlook the~p~qblems of cost and niarket for developing technology. Without a requirement to do so, without a' clear `profit incentive,,~industries ari~cl municipalities have not pressed for improved eq~iipn~ent; ~k1us there `has' been `nO ma'r~et' fort such hardware. ` `Oon- ~rS~1y If these cön~ideratiôns `wOre `reve~sed' I have littj~ d~ubt that :~~*ould See' `a cOhip~titive develo~pnient `,o~ `new; eff&~tFve; low-cost e~uipmen~ fbr~ollution abatement At this ~p~1~t,' `th~"~noStisèrióus `p~ob1en~"in ~ hoiñ'e ~t'at& of Cali- forni~ `iS air `joll'ution. A conservati$~ `estimate is that, across the Natiofl, `daniage tq ~ops,, det~rioratjon of' buildings, `bridges, `and i~hii~s"ruiis' OvO~ `$11 billion a year.' `;`E~eh ~ar thO~e pollutants are'rèleased'jnto the air :65 mill j~n tons~f ~arbton thonoxide, ~3'milljoñ tone of ~n~fu'r' oxi'~es, `15 mWi&n ton~ of' liydtbcarboñs, `12 million tons of ot~her matt~r. `Thes~ pollutants ~à~' be' transformed by' a èhemical process, such ~S oxidation ~ or they m~iy bl~w sway or fall to the g~round FhentiThthjg cj'~',Of the loc~i ar~a ~Sâi~ only~ handle SØn~iuch anti' i'&aohi~ a~t~èae~ th~O~raphic and me~porblogica1' problems; such as inyer~iqn, ~au~e eyen greater difficu!lty~; ,` ` " ` `, " ` ~lif~h~vo~k `reth~i*~'ah~ad ~f' us in both re~earch thd techn~bgy. W~ needL i~i'M~é eaPdh into the effe~s' `off `loiigf'iz~ie exposure in, ol-der `tO ~st~bll~h' meaningful `standards for control.' Our `knthvied~ge of the interi~e1~tion~hip' and' ,se~ondary e~eóts of var~otis ~oliütants' is not fficlent~ `~ ,~" ` `` `,` ` ` ``*` ~", " ` ` " ," ` ~l~'atiy~ twO Of our t~ic3~t' Seri'Ot~s ~rb1~1em~ `ar~ the' aut~mbbjle and oxides~f~iil'fnr. `~ Incou~iIetç eqnibusti~h~in ~tbr~hic1e~ is a `major problem, in every `iii~rO~Ei1!itan ~are~1nYöth~ `N'atiOi~.' `The `i~atiOMl PAGENO="0295" A1x~QtTACt OFTECHNOLOG~ F~OE pOtLtYPIO~A~A~M1~NT 895 `reqtiirenieiit of ccmtrol mechanisms is a signifrcantbeg~Aiiit1 .~ g. ` ~ am in full aecord~ with tb~more ~t~nsi~ie ree~mni~iidat1ôns o~ M~ N~m~ia4~ Cousins, chairman of the mayor's task force on aii~ pollution, N~* `~~k City, and I'd like to reiterate these ponit~ as hepi~esetitecl then~ t~ the CommitteeonPublic Works earlier thi~year~ First, that studies should be made to dêtermme `wheliher the blowby and afterbtirner devices r~quired under the Cl~uu1 Air Act ~thght not have the adverse side effect of emitting oxides ~f nittdgen, thu~cre~t- ing astibstai~t1al new probleni. :Second, effective'air pniiution cot~~trOl dcvice~ should b~ reqt r~d~ f~r all cars, regardless of age. * Third, extensive research should be aimed at the idea of developing hemical additives for use in all fuels which now produ~e: ~oTh~t~iit~, including fuels used in automobiles, buses, trucks, heating furnak~es, and steam and~ power generating statione. With re~pect to sulfaP o~ide, a great deal of ~rogi~es~ can be *mØe by using low-sñlfur fuels ~vhile continuing t~*drk~On ithprQvihg ~ur- naces and developing inexpensive devices to eatch. ~diist an4 ~siiiftur fumes. Inth~s whole field, I think it is extremel~y important to remeni- ber this point recently expre~sed by SenatQu~ Ethnund~ S. Mjiiski~jof Maine "Additional study is needed, of c*irse, butt this fact is too often ulsed a~s an excuse for delay." The riverS and streams of our Nation have for so long a tii~ñe served a dumping ground for our waste products that it will reqtn~e a tha)br commitment of money and talent 1~ô overcome the harm clone by enterprising but unthinking Americans In this dky arid age, eve~, approximately one fourth of our towns and cities a~e without any kind of treatment facility foi' raw sewage Over $40 billion ~s required ~rnerely to catch up to the needs of the n'ioment In eoinparis6i~4 the $600 nulbon to be spent by local cothn~unities and the $1~0 million by the Federal Government are tothily inad~4uate The ~ouroes of `c'~kiter pollution are many and inchide domestic sewage Iind other oxygen demanding wastes, infectious djsea~~ producipg dgenf~, plant nutrients, organic chethicai~ including ~esti~ides~a~id t~r~en~ i~&d~- trial wastes, sediment and silt from land erosion, and heat from power and industrial plants. Intensified research and development is urgent to keep ahead of the problem of waste treatment. We need advanced means of treating municipal and industrial wastes. Particularly, we might look into the development of joint treatment systems. such as is that shared by the Potomac communities of Lake, Md.; Westernport, Md.; and Pied- mont, W. Va.; and the West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co. New methods of solving the problems of cities which have combined storm and sanitary sewers are sorely needed. Over one-third of our Nation faces having their sewage flow untreated into their streams because of the overflow of the system during storms. Another area of investigation for our scientists and engineers would be to develop alternative methods of waste disposal, instead of the age-old one of unloading it into our rivers. Basic research will always be in demand to determine the effect and, fate of new chemicals dis- covered and used in industry and on such complex problems as re- gently cropped up in Riverside, Calif. when Scthnonelk& typhim~uQm was polluting that city's well water supply. PAGENO="0296" 896 `ADEQUACY O~ T i~OLOG~' FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT Two `indispensable elements of a successful program in combating water' pollution are. `money and enforcement power. Funds~.re re- quired to support both research' and construction. The demand for treatment plant.s alone will require $20 billion in the next 6 years. The Federal share of this should be at least $1 billion annually and should constitute a contribution of 50 percent of the cost. The present dollar limit for any one city's project should be removed for `this is unrealistic and unfair to our large metropolitan areas. Insofar as enforcement authority is concerned, I strongly support my colleague, Representh&e John P. Dingell, who has `done a great deal of work on this in urging that the Secretary of `the the Interior be authorized to call a conference for intrastate as well as interstate streanis on, his initiative without the requirement of the Governor's consent. `There is much to be done. Our technology is closely related to the elimate we create ~f or its growth and to the goals the public sets for its use.' Mthough there is no question but that the situation is urgent and requires immediate action, we can take heart from the tremendous example set by West Germany. With over one-half the West German industrial capacity located along the Ruhr River, with that river's relatively smali streamfiow, we `may `be surprised to `learn that the Ruhr is not polluted. Their method was one which we might con- sider: industrial plants are charged a stiff fine proportionate to the amount of pollution each plant puts into the river. I feel sure that with the wholehearted support. of the public and the Federal Govern- ment, we can, do as well, As President Johnson has said: "We see t~at we oan corrupt and destroy our lands, our rivers, our forests, and the atmosphere itself-all in the name of progi~ess and necessity Such a course leads to a barren America, bereft of its beauty, and shorn of its sustenance. We see `that there is another course-more expensive today, more demanding. Down this course lies a natural America restored to her people. The promise is clear rivers, tall forests, and clean air-ak sane environment for man." The responsibility and the opportunitylie before us totake this other course. PAGENO="0297" STATEMENT SUBMITTED TO TUE SUBCOMI~ITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEAIiOII, AND DEVELOPMENT, iir EvElmrr P. PARTRIDGE, CALGON Corn~'., SRi'- TEMBER 12, 1966 In the flood of reports by commititees and panels and of statements by organizations before congressional subcommittees few engineers with a substantial professional career in the managemen~ of water for industrial use have become involved. I now consider it unfortu- nate that what such engineers say to each other is not more freque3atly said in the public forum. The following statement may be considerød a personal expiation of my sins of omission. As a chemical engineer immersed in research, development and en- gineering consultation for 40 years, I offer first my convictions that: 1. We do not face an immediate national crisis with respect to water. 2. We do not lack adequate technoio~y to meet the current aettial needs with respect to control of pollution of water. 3. We cannot expect to overcome the "crisis" by simply allocat- ing additional effort to research. Is there an immediate national crisis? I believe not. Yes, we must work harder and harder to keep a relatively constant supply of water m condition to be reused more and more timesby more and more people who desire to have more and more things manufactured by and for them. But we do have adequate. time to adjust the economy of the Nation to progressively greater reuse of water. The reasons we hear the screaming of "Crisis! Crisis !" are multiple and complexly interrelated. Perhaps the most pervasive factor is the conviction at the level of practical political management that only by crying "Wolf !" can we stimulate our society sufficiently to support even slow action. Do we lack adequate technology to face a crisis, if one actually existed? No, of course not. Economics limits our action, not tech- nology. Our society already has available effective technology to meet the problems posed by pollution, but it is only just beginning to face up to the cost and the readjustment of our national economy to absorb it. Few citizens comprehend that they are individual thxpayers and buyers of the products of industry must each contribute part of their personal effort in the form of earnings to buy for their use and enjoyment the clean water they are being encouraged to demand. When we talk' about new, advanced technology for control of pollu- tion what we really are hopeful of attaining is a minimized increase in the cost of doing what must otherwise inevitably become the more and more burdensome job of keeping water reusable. Can we create the new technology to minimize the cost of keeping water reusable? Perhaps. But we must consistently remember that we are seeking economy of operation as well as improvement in tech- iucal performance. ` 897 PAGENO="0298" 898 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOE POLLUTION ABATEMENT Appropriating any number of millions or billions of dollars in the hope of achieving a research goal does not in any way determine that the goal actually is attainable. A case in point is the saline water program, which was created specifically with the expectation that it would provide water sufficiently inexpensive to be used for irrigation ii~otir dwn~ country~ Th~s prograin~ now see~ns destined to ~bccoi~te ~rimariiy ~an in~trnmert of ~1d to tother ~onntrie~ ~o much ~nôre in need of water than the United States that they can pa~ a high cost for it., A corporation in'crests ~rn a number of ~resc~rch ~rojedts, each selected with tlieexpectation that'the benefit to the~harehdlders `will be'greater than the cost of the project When it a~sumes the fux1ction~ of a social :~o~p9ration, the Federai Government has the s~me~ba'~ic responsibility to n~vest in projects which ptomise to prodtice hTiore real benefits than their' `il &~sts. Neither the `corpor~tion-for-~rofit `ilor th~è Gvern~ ment can expect every research project Thp~o~,btit'thO adeqiia~of t~ie itiitnagenie~nt in each case will uItim~tely be judged by the ratio of ~th~ysO which cl'dto thOse which donot. , ` ` ` " , For'humah beings to `derive real benefits fro~n scithitific r~1search,'the result's of this research must ulti~ate1y be applied by indiyiduals who think lik~ engineers.' In the' c~ntrol' of pOllution this, wbuld mean engineering ap~licaticn ~f' sciènôe in tOrth~ Of large ~uañtities of ma- `terial being processed `with high' efficiency in equipment that will con- tinue to function for long period~ of'time; pi~odncing:'a i~esuit at3 an optim'çim ratio of value to cost.' ~A. cifrrent erfti~ism of `en~inéei'ing education is that it has been ~ro'ducing tOo `f&w men c~apabie of tFaim- ferr~ng the results of scientific Fesearch into processes prO~pe~rly en~i- noered for'efficicnt operation.' ` `~ ` ` ` "~ ` ` ` `~` What are Our real needs in the `~i~Id~df pollution control ~" i'hein~st immediate need is, fo~ nianpower eoth~eteni~, to `apply":the results of g~ientitic investigatibn to beneficial useS ~ri the- 1. Design; construction n~nd continuing o~Oi~átioi~ of `tre~ment plants for municipal sewage and industrial waS~tes, ethploym~ e~dsting technolOgy and adapting' coñteuipor~ry `impi'~ovemerits. 2. Evaluation and regulation at the level of locai~ state; `ii~i~. state, and Federal agencies for control of j~olltition :Encouraging more young men of abil~ty with an interest in the ap ~piication of technology to choose en~'ineering tramuig in the field of pollution control is obViously more e~sent~al to early progress in this 1fielcl th~i the more remote research to dthrelbp new~sdientific informa- tion of pOssible utility `rhe next ttlost immediate need is to establisJ~ an ~Am~sphere of iticezi ~tive fOi~ industry to innovate iipro'~rethents hi bd~~~Os and equi~ptheiit which will compete for us~ in co±itrol of potlutlOn, pul~ject to the ~ilti mate test of the market Important, but still third in order of immediacy, is 1~'ederal sup~drt of the search for uew scientific facts upon whu~h the engmeer may be able to build new technology lvhich in ~ttrn may meet the ultimately dedisrve test of eCOnomics 4 Science i~ ~`the endless frontiOF~" ~Btit 4umtil' It ~s applied to the benè~. `fi~of thanit'yields ôhly mt ilectii~l ~al'tt~s tó the :fë~v siã~~t~ ~a~- ble of comprehending its findings. A wise goveri'ithent `*111 ~ccOrd.. ingly be as concerned with encouraging the application of science as it is with the accumulation of new scientific information. PAGENO="0299" ST~TEM1~N~ SU]3MITT1~D TO TIlE St coMM~rreE O~ SCIENCE, RESEARCH, A~D DEYJ~LOPMENT BY fliE AToMIC J~NERGY Coi~unssIoN, SEP .i~rn~R 12, 1966 INTRODUCTION The Atomic Energy Commission is' an ~ ra~ti~ng agency which also has statutory responsibility for protecting the health nnd safety of ~he public in nuclear energy. ~ctivities. But beyond this legislative man~ d~te, tim Commission-and its predecessor, the Army's Manhattan `Engineer District~-recognized `from the o~utset an essential respOnsibil~ `it~ for controlling potential danger to the public. Thus, from the inception of the program, special steps were taken to protect agatast all types of envirOnmental pollution. The use of nuclear energy to produce electric power is expanding at `a rapid rate. . Power reactors are safe and reliabie,'tl~e~ ~njoy~a high degree of public a~cceptanee~ and the cost of nuclear pow.er has dropped sharply iii recent years with improved technology and with the~ cbni- struction of larger units. `* Among the factors that affect a) utility decision between fossil fuel and nuclear fuel generation a're.the following: Thitial capital cost . " , `` The cost of n~ilear plants is ~e~eral~y higher than for equivaJent fossil-fuel plants. However, this difference~ becomes less as t~e size of t~e generating unit increases. ror example, recent bids received, by TVA for two wilts ~,f 1400,000 kilo~at~s each actu~ally indicated , slightly lqw~r COSt for phe nu~lear wiits,t~a~'ifpr,a c~~ai,,burhing pla4t. Fuel cOgt~'~ In geogmphic areas where the' deliyered'~dst of fossil fuel is rela- tively high, nuclear fuel costs provide~ a sigilificant advantage~ `Stich areas include most of the eastern seaboard States, the upper Midwest, and California. Over the past few `years, as' the cost of nuclear fuel has steadily decreased, areas in which nucle~ power appears econ~m- icallyattract~.ve have expanded. . `)`~` . `Operation ~artd `niaintencø~e `, :` ` , FOr miclear plants this item of `cost; like capital cdsts, i~ sensitive t~ `unit' size.. Uñde~, `present tec'hnoio~y `and" safety rë4tiireinents, tim ~taft1ng needs for' smaller, nuclear plantS a~re' donsiderab'ly ii~ e~es~ of those ~or' equi~aleht foSsil-fuel plants. "In `the `large `sizes liOwe~ér~ a nuclear plailt may require a `smaller staff than a coal plant of compara~ bie `si~e. ` ``,` ` `" ) .` ` ` ` ` Timrefóre, in ~`Onip'arative ~dst evaluation' of~fossil fuel and nuclear power, `consideration m~i~t `be gi~ren' to such,'factors as unit Size, tela~ trve fuel co~ts, the anticipated e~tent to whfcl~ ~he plant will be oper- ated (plart't factor), the possibility of installing a mine mdtii~h coal- burning `plant' "*ith long' distance t~nsmission `and ~n1y ~eConcithè advantage which might be gained `by adding a `fOs~iI' fuel unit to ~i1. 899 PAGENO="0300" 900 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT existing fossil station. In general, at the present time, nuclear power is not economically feasible in unit sizes under about 200,000 to 300,- 000 kilowatts or when the generating unit is operated at a reduced plant factor. In the last 2 years, more and more utilities have chOsen nuclear plants over fossil plants in the larger sizes. In our discussion of the question of pollution, we will discuss two broad areas-the potential pollution aspects of nuclear power and the technology which has been developed to control pollution. NUCLEAR POWER AND ITS POLLUTION ASPECTS The rate of nuclear power growth, is increasing more rapidly than the most optimistic forecasters had predicted. In 1964 it was estimated that the installed nuclear capacity in the United States in 1980 would be 60,000 to 90,000 electrical megawatts. The recent large number of nu~lear power announcements have raised these 1980 power estimates to 80,000 to 110,000 electrical megawatts. With this expanding industry, one might reasonably ask if this in- creased nationwide use of nuclear electric power will produce serious environmental pollution problems or, conversely, if the extent of power reactor waste management operations will be of such magnitude as to deter the orderly development of the industry. The control of reactor effluents, to date, has been carried out in a safe and economical manner, and these operations have not resulted in any harmful effects on the public, its environment, or its resources. We believe this excellent environmental pollution control record will be continued. We will summarize briefly the state of technology and of the re- search and development being parried out to achieve this objective. The potential effluent control problem from nuclear power systems may be considered in two parts: (1) the handling, treatment, and dis- posal of increasing quantities of liquid, solid, and gaseous wastes with very low levels of radioactivity from the normal Operation of civilian nuclear power stations, and (2) the processing and disposal of highly radioactive wastes from facilities which process irradiated reactor fuel to recover the unburned fissionable. material. NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS While the management of radioactive waste at nuclear power sta- tions is not expected to impede the development of large-scale and widespread nuclear power generation, sufficient quantities of low~ activity wastes (liquids, solids, and gases) are produced to require ef- fective and economical collection, handling and managenient systems, and to insure that effluent control does not become the limiting opera- tional factor in the production of power. The scope and magnitude of these operations vary with each type of power reactor. For ex- ample, the satisfactory handling and disposal of gaseous effluents. is an important design consideration for organic, gas-cooled, and direct- cycle, boiling water reactors The low activity liquid wastes produced by water reactors are, either treated before disposal or are reused a~ reactor feed water. The nature and quantity of low-activity wastes from thermal and fast breeder reactors will be evaluated as develop-' ment proceeds on these reactor systems. PAGENO="0301" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 901 Waste systems for power reactors have employed conservative do- sign criteria in terms of safety, pollution control, and plant perform- ance. These criteria include the following salient features: (1) Waste plant capacities are sized to `handle higher than normal volumes arid activities which might be caused by higher than expected corrosion and leakage rates, frequency of maintenance, and radioa~- tivity from fuel failures. (2) Plant flexibility is provided to accommodate waste from future fuel types, new decontamination solutions, and unforeseen abnormal wastes and cleanup solutions from accidents. (3) Some dilution of liquid wastes by mixing with main condenser discharge water or other water is permitted in order to keep well below radiation protection standards; however, the dilution capacity of sur- face water streams receiving the condenser discharge water is not used to meet acceptable radiation protection standards. (4) Limited use is made of on-site disposal for low- and intermedi- ate-level liquid wastes or packaged, solid wastes. (5) Piping and tanks (for all except very low-activity liquids) are provided with separate secondary containment by placing them in pipe trenches and in concrete enclosures, so that leakage can be detected and collected and returned to the waste system. Treatment and storage systems at water reactors now operating (and those planned for the expanding industry in the next decade or more) include radioactive decay hold-up tanks, evaporators, ion exchangers, steam-stripping, catalytic recombination of hydrogen and oxygen, fix- ation of solids and liquids in concrete, incineration, baling, and liquid and gas filtration. In many cases, liquid wastes are stored to permit decay of short-lived radioactivity. They are then monitored to assure that they meet acceptable standards and then are released without fur- ther treatment. The waste volumes handled at power reactor facilities are not large (50 to 100,000 gallons per day for 200 to 400 milliwatt reactors) in comparison with industrial waste volumes from many other industries. The total radioactivity handled in these wastes is quite small. Radioactivity concentrations in existing power plant ef- fluents, with no environmental dilution, have ranged from 1 to 3 per- cent of internationally accepted radiation protection standards for the general public. The plants have used conservative methods for estab- lishirig discharge limits. Solid combustible wastes are generally baled (volumes reduced by 4-6: 1 through the use of standard baling machines), then sealed in fiber drums or boxes and shipped off site for land burial at approved sites. Incineration of combustible wastes at power reactor sites has not been widely used because of high operating costs and the rela- tively small volumes of such waste handled. Disposal of ion exchange resins, evaporator concentrates, and cOntaminated noncombustible waste is accomplished by fixation in concrete in standard 55-gallon drums and transported by commercial firms off site for land burial.. Solid waste volumes for reactor facilities of the Dresden and Yankee types amount to several thousand cubic feet per yenr. Final disposal of these Wastes is readily achieved through commercial land burial operations at special locations on Government-owned land-currently in the States of New York, Kentucky, Nevada, and Washington- where the necessary perpetual control is assured. The capacity and PAGENO="0302" 902 ADEQtTACY OF TEC~OLOGY FOR POLLUPION ABATEMENT a~rai1abi1ity of suitable land burial facilities db no~a~ppear~to be ~s~tên- tial problems for future power reactor Oper~tio~ns, even* with the n~ost optimistic growth projeôtiona. . Radioactive gases ~re normali~*'produced jn `water~oole& and mod- erated. reactors. Some of the radioactive effluents may be associated with particulate matter. All radioactive particulates' discharged to the atmosphere pass through high efficiency absolute filters which re- move 99.9 percent of'th~ particles Q.~ miCrons or larger. Some ptants have holdup capacities for radioactive eases to `permit' decay of soni~e of the species to innocuous levels Radioactive gaseous effluents from nuclear power plants are contmuou~ly monitored at the plant and ftir ther off-site monitoring is also provided by~'both State and `Federal agencies. `Nuclear power plant records indicate ga~eous' discharges that are only one-tenth of 1 percent" (0.1 .percent) of permissible limits. In one recent case, involving a pressurized water reactor, it was determined that a tailstack' for release' o'f'gase.ous effluéi~ts~as not necessary because of the small amounts of effluents produced. Data for power `reactor wastemanagement systems shOw that capi- tal costs for water-type reaotor~ to date have ranged from appro~i-~ mately $0.5 to $4.0 `million for the collection:, processing, disposal, and monitoring systems required. Such èosts' pi~esent'ly constitute' 3 to 5 percent of the total reactor facility cost, operating and maintenance Costs have ranged between 5 afid 10 "percent. of the overall `plant opera- tion and maintenance costa ` From an overall water pollution standpoint, a significant problem in the futur~ may' involve thermal'effects from both nuclear and~ fossil fueled electric power plants. The magnitude and severity of thermal effects arehighly dependent.on local environmental conditions. That' is, `thern availability of `adequ~te surface water `supplies for condenser cooling is becoming a `majkr `consideration in the siting of" both nuclear and convefttionaI~,thermal..eleetri~ geneFating stations. Nu~ clear `piant~ of' `current' design" discharge more waste heat to "the `en- vironment than a convent~onaJly firec~E plant of the same si~e because of a lower thermal effioienc~r As more efficient nuclear plar~ts are pro~ duced, "this dili!erence in thermal effect `between nu'c~Iear an~j, ~o~il' plants wiil'be diminished. Auxiliary cooling' s~stems,"involvjng' the use of reservoirs, ponds, or cooling towers, can be Ia sohiti'on, but in- stallation costs of about $5 per kilowatt of plant capaci't~' may' b~'re- qmre'd over a conventional river"water cooling system. I~owever; these costs may be offset by increased flexibility in site selection, which could result in lower fuel, power transmi~ion, and land costs `PURL RRPROORS5INQ PLANTS ` During the chemical reprocessing of irradiated reactor fuel to re- cover unburned uranium and, pluto~iurn highly :ra4ioaotive wastes are produced which must be contained an!1 isolated from man and his natural resources for hundreds of years. The magnitude of the high aet~vity waste management problem with an expanding nuclear power industry has been under continuing assessment as an integral pa$ of the Commission's radioactive eMuent control research and develop- ment program For example, chirmg hearings before the Joint Com- mittee ?~ Atomic l~nergy oi~ the sub~ect of inc1u~trial radioactive waste disposal held m 1959, it was estimated that using the then cur- PAGENO="0303" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 903 rent processing technology the volume of high and intermediate level waste accumulated by 1q80 would reach 36 million gallons. The intervening years have brought improvements in `fuei~rteeh- nology and in fuel reprocessing methods which have served to markedly reduce the volume of wastes generated per unit of nuclear power pro- duced. Thus, while estimates, of installed nuclear power in the year 2000 remain about the same, estimates for 1980 have risen almost four- fold from 25,000 electrical magawatts at the time of the hearings to 95,000 electrical magawatts now~ f6recast, and predicted accumulated waste volumes in storage by 1980 have dropped by a factor of 10 `to 40 (from 36 million gallons down to 1 to 4 million gallons) depending on waste handling techniques within the reprocessing p'ant. With the currently projected nuclear power growth rate, the cumulative waste volumes by the year 2000 are estimated at 20 to 40 million gal- lons, which is not inordinately large when compared with tho over 65 miilion* gallons of high activity wastes which have been satisfac~ torily handled in the 4~EC's own operations to date. These estimated waste volumes are predicated on the assumption that confinement of the~w,astes will be accomplished by means of long- term tank storage of liquids. . llo~wever, while more than ~0 years' experience with, storage of liquid high activity wastes in tanks has shown it to be a safe, practical means of interim handling, the long- term usefulness of this method is limited. This is due to the long effective life of the wastes (hundreds of years) and the comparatively short life of storage tanks, estimated at several tens of years. Ac- cordingly, the Commission has pursued a vigorous research and de- velopment `program aimed at developing, and demonstrating, on., an engineering sca.le, `systems for the conversion of high level liquid wastes to stable solids and. th~ir subsequent storage in a dry geologic fórmatioh'such as salt.' . ` ` . This solidification and disposal technology for high activity waste appears quite feasible and practical, and has, now reached the', hot pilot plailt and field demonstration `phase. Results of these resea~rch and development programs are being provided to industry as corn mercial reprocessing of spent reactor fuel becomes operational during the 1966-72 period. .; . While it appears that the presently ,proposod waste mana~em.ent systems will fulfill the requirements for safe and economical disposal of high-level ~a~tes from: our future nuclear power industry, there ar~ two potential problems which may require additional attention These involve the proposed practice of releasing krypton 85 and tritium to the environment from fuel prOcessing plants. Although these rare' gases are far less hazardou~ than many other fission products, the release of krypton 85 at those processing plants which might be located near populous areas may ~impose certain operational limitations.,' The removal and contaii~ment of krypton 85, to prevent a significant buildup of this radionuclide in the atmosphere, may be required in an.exp'anding nuclear power economy. Technology to acc~mplish this is being developed in the Commis~i9n~s waste research program. Tritium, a fission product of very low yield, may also merit special consideration from the standpoint of its management in wastes from fuel processing. In the case of present splvent extraction plants, at least 75 percent of the tritium in the irradiated fuel is discharged to the PAGENO="0304" 904 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR ~POLLUTION ABATEMENT environment in low-level aqueous wastes. Future plants, if situated less remotely, may be restricted in the quantity they can release to their immediate environs. The costs of `high-activity waste treatment and ultimate storage in the nuclear power future have been estimated between 0.02-0.03 mill per kilowatt-hour of nuclear electricity produced. This represents about 1--2 percent of the total fuel cycle cost and substantially less than 1 percent of the cost of nuclear power in a 4-miil-per~kilowatt-hour economy. On the basis of laboratory and engineering process data, and on an expected, successful field demonstration and testing program with high-activity waste, it is believed that waste management costs will not deter the development of safe and economical nuclear power. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN POLLUTION CONTROL While waste management te~hnolcgy has been and is `being de- ~eloped which we believe will continue to provide satisfactory environ- mental pollution control systems for the expanding nuclear power industry, there are also other facets of the AEC program which are making significant contributions to the Nation's overall pollution abatement efforts~ ~These* programs deal. with the development of instrumentation and monitoring equipment for the measurement and control of nonradioactive contaminants in our geohydrologic and at- mospheric environments. EADIOTRACER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Pollution of the' environment generally involves the presence of chemical substances in low concentrations. To control pollution, one must be able to measure it. Here the use of radiotracers is a particu- larly useful tool for quantitatively analyzing the problem, because of the extreme sensitivity of radioisotope measurements. An example of an early use of tracers was their employment in 1958 in a study of Sewage flow rates near El Segundo, Calif. In the past few years, the development and refinement of ultra- sensitive analytical techniques (such as neutron activation analysis) and of sealed sources of radioisotopes have enabled scientists to apply moderfl methods and portable equipment for determining more ac- curately and conveniently the concentration of a wide variety of en- vironmental pollutants. Activation analysis, for example, permits the use in some cases of inert tracers to follow the course of a particular contaminant without having to add radioactivity to the biosphere Reliable and intense sources of alpha, beta, and gamma activity are incorporated in field instruments' wherein the degree of attenuation, scattering, or emission of radiation is a measure of the properties of the medium. instrument for continuously monitoring the concentration of sulfur dioxide and ozone in air has been developed in. the AEC isotopes development program for air pollution control and is under evaluation by a commercial company. This device uses a newly available radio- chemical (krypton clathrate) to measure parts per million levels of sulfur dioxide and parts per billion levels of ozone. Air containing the contaminants is passed through an organic compoun.d in which the radioisotope krypton 85 is' trapped. Reaction of the contaminants with PAGENO="0305" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 905 the organic material releases an equivalent amount of the radioisotope, which can be measured with great sensitivity. For stream hydrologic work, a suspended sediment density meter has been developed, a rugged portable device for measuring the concentra- tion of suspended sediment in rivers and streams. This unit employs a sealed source of cadmium 109 which emits soft X-rays. The degree of attenuation of the radiation is related to' the concentration of sediment. Another new analytical technique which appears promising for stream pollution studies is a portable dissolved oxygen analyzer. In this method, a radioactive material-metallic thallium 204-reacts with the dissolved oxygen, in stoichiometric quantities, in the water flowing through a column of metal particles. The radioactivity in the effluent is counted. This unit can measure parts per million concentrations of oxygen, and can provide data over longer periods of time than other devices, without interruption. Other radiotracer work is being carried out in connection with stream pollution control for the pulp and paper industry in the State of Wash- ington. A tracer technique using chromium 51 has also been developed to determine the efficiency of ion exchange waste treatment for chro- mium bearing waste solutions. Increasing use of various radionuclide `tracers (krypton 85, chromium 51, and scandium 46) for sediment transport studies is another area where radioisotope technology is being used in the overall problem of environmental pollution measure- ment and control. While not considered as nuclear technology, per se, the AEC in its environmental pollution research and development program has pio- neered the use of a "team approach" in assessing the environmental impact of large-scale nuclear energy operations on man and his re- sources. The application of a wide variety of chemical and analytical techniques and~ competencies in many scientific disciplines, including operations and systems analyses, has resulted in comprehensive environ- mental evaluations of (1) stream conditions in the Clinch River below Oak Ridge, Tenn.; the Savannah River below the Savannah River plant, Aiken, S.C.; the Mohawk River below Knolls Atomiu Power Laboratory, Schenectady, N.Y., and the Columbia River below the Hanford works, Richland, Wash., and (2) atmospheric conditions in the vicinity of Oak Ridge, Tenn.; National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho; and Brookhaven National Laboratory' near lipton, N.Y. We believe the techniques used, including systems analysis, are equally applicable to other environmental pollution studies. METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATION The meteorological problems faced by air pollution abatement and nuclear energy authorities are similar, despite the differences in em- phasis engendered by the differences in source materials and configura- tions. In many cases, such as releases from stacks, the problems are identical and the same meteorological tools may b~ used to esthnate downwind dosages. In other cases, such as the urban area source, the meteorological parameters governing single source emission are the same but applied in a somewhat differeutmanner. Because of the intensity of effort and the fundamental nature of the stndies of turbulence and diff iis~on within the unclear energy field over ~5-240-66-vo1. 11-20 PAGENO="0306" 906 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT the last 15 years, there has been a significant flow of basic and applied meteorological information into the air pollution technology. The various national laboratories and other contractors of the Atomic Energy Commission have carried out research in several major cate- gories: aerosol studies, precipitation studies, atmospheric transport and diffusion studies, and the development of sampling equipment. All of these programs have direct application to the overall air pollu- tion problem. For example, the aerosol studies have as their objective an under- standing of the interrelationships between very small particles and their environment. Since many air pollutants are aerosols, it can be seen that the work done in this category would have direct application to many of the industrial air pollution problems. The precipitation studies are designed to understand better the effect of scavenging or the cleansing of the atmosphere by precipita- tion. This involves understanding the processes involved in precipi- tating systems and the creation, development and eventual dissipation of such systems. The scavenging of the atmosphere by precipitation is nature's method of keeping the air clean of all air pollutants. There- fore it is vital that we know more about the scavenging mechanism. Although the programs in atmospheric transport and diffusion studies are primarily supported for the purpose of developing a capa- bility to forecast efficiently and expeditiously the concentration of radioactive material from an accident, operational release, etc., any- where in space and time, the results of these studies are applicable to any problem where the atmosphere acts as the transporting and diffu- sion mechanism. Many of the studies use nonradioactive materials as tracers. A good share of these contracts emphasize basic studies of atmospheric turbulence, since it is the turbulence which diffuses ma- terial in the atmosphere. In other research studies, the AEC has pioneered in the use of tall towers and constant level balloons for probing the atmosphere, in the performance of some of the major diffusion experiments necessary to verify theoretical models and develop empirical techniques and in studies of the deposition and washout of material on surface features. These studies have been responsible for new techniques in meteorologi- cal instrument development and use, for plume height of rise studies and for the development of advanced climatological formats which delineate those features of local climate that determine the diffusive capacityof a site. Another significant contribution to the quantitative assessment of air pollution problems has been the publication of "Meterology and Atomic Energy" (now being updated), a technical guide used by the nuclear industry during the past 10 years in reactor safety analyses. The calculational methods and techniques which have been developed for determining atmospheric. transport and diffusion of radioactivity are now being use~ in the evaluation of industrial air pollution probleixis. ,~tEC STUOT OF ~?OLLtTTIQN PROBI~D1~ZS It has recently been suggested that the AEO and its national labora- tories be used in assisting with the problem of pollution control from fossil-fuel plants, as well as other pressing national industrial waste problem. The Commission, as part of its broad public responsibility, PAGENO="0307" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 907 is vitally concerned with overall problems of pollution, and is espe- cially interested in developing nuclear techniques or systems which would contribute to the solution of various industrial waste problems. The AEC actively promotes the maximum use by others of technology deireloped within the AEC complex. Further, the Commission stands ready to make AEC facilities available to other Federal agencies, where the Commission's special competence may be useful. In this connection, arrangements have been made for AEC and its national laboratory staff members to visit with the National Coal Association research group for technical discussions on the coal industry pollution problems. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Pollution abatement is one of the major `factors being considered by the power industry `in the selection of fossil fuels or nuclear reactors for electric power generation. Power reactor effluent control has been carried out in a safe and economical manner and these operations have not resulted in any harmful effects on the public, its environment, or its natural resources. Waste management technology has been and is being developed which will continue to provide satisfactory environmental pollution control systems for the expanding nuclear power industry. Surveil- lance programs have been established to assure that concentrations of radioactive materials released to the environment are maintained well below internationally accepted health and safety standards. The costs of power reactor waste management to date have been nominal, and it is estimated that the future costs for treatment and storage of highly radioactive wastes which are produced in the chemical processing of irradiated reactor fuel will be substantially less than 1 percent of the cost of nuclear power in a 4 mill per kilowatt-hour economy. Instru- mentation and analytical techniques using radioisotopes have been developed for use in nonnuclear environmental'pollution measurement and control. Basic and applied meteorological research data from AEC programs are being used in industrial air pollution control programs. The subject of industrial radioactive waste disposal was thoroughly and extensively discussed in hearings conducted by the' Joint Commit- tee on Atomic Energy in 1959. Among the salient conclusions reached as a result of the exhaustive JCAE hearings on this subject were (1) radioactive waste management practices have not resulted in any harm- ful effects on the public, its environment, or its resources; and (2) the general problem of radioactive waste need not retard the future development of the nuclear energy industry with full protection of the public health and safety. Even with the most optimistic nuclear power projections, we believe these conclusions are still valid. The Commission is grateful `fOr this opportunity to provide inf or- mation on a subject of such vital significance to the people of the United States. PAGENO="0308" STATEMENT SITBMITTED TO THE SIJBCOMMIrflDE ON SCIENas, RESEARCH, ANTh DEVELOPMENT, BY JAMES R. GARVEY, BrruMINovs COAL RE- SEARCH~ INC.,'SEPTEMBEB 19, 1966. My name is James B. Garvey. I am president of Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., which is the research affiliate of the National Coal As- sociation. At our research laboratories at Monroeville, Pa., we are seeking through research to improve the means by which bituminous coal is mined, prepared, shipped, and utilized. A substantial portion of our research effort is devoted to finding means for controlling the pollution resulting from the mining and use of bituminous coal. Our organization is supported by the bituminous coal industry, through the National Coal Association, and, in addition, receives fi- nancial contributions from the coal-hauling railroads, coal wining and utilization equipment manufacturers, and a number of the leading electric utility companies. We believe the obj8ctive of the heariugs by this committee, namely, to assess the technology for pollution abatement, to be a most laudable one. The coal industry, like many other industries, is alarmed by the rate at which legislative action commanding pollution abatement has accelerated well beyond the rate of development of feasible means for accomplishing that abatement; especially in light of the questionable need in some instances for abatement. The situation was well de- scribed by Dr. Abel Wolman of the Johns Hopkins University in his special report on pollution made to the Management Advisory Panel of this subcommittee. A review of the present status of water, air and land pollution and proposals for abatement thereof make reasenably clear that corrective legislation has quite well outrun both factual basis for action and smooth machinery for develop- ment and regulation. We appreciate the opportunity to present this material, and it is our intention, in line with the objectives of the hearings, to review the state of the art of abatement, primarily, of air pollution resulting from the combustion of bituminous coal, and, to a somewhat lesser extent, the abatement of water and land reclamation involved in the mining of coal. We will attempt to brief you on the research and control methods which are currently underway and the expectations we have for the attainment of improved pollution control methods which will enable a reduction in coal's contribution to air and water pollution and land reclamation problems, and at the same time, enable the coal industry to continue as a vital part of our industrial economy. Bituminous coal is vital since it is the primary source of heat energy used in the generation of electricity and the carrying out of many industrial processes. It is estimated that during 1966 about 263 mil- lion tons will be used for electric generation, 106 million tons will be used directly by general industries, and 94 million tons will be used in the form of coke for the manufacture `of steel. This 463 million tons, combined with somewhat lesser amounts used for other purposes, 908 PAGENO="0309" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 909 including export, wIll bring the total bituminous coal production this year to about 534 million tons. This coal production, in addition to providing an important contribution to our industrial progress, also provides employment for more than 128,000 men and contributes $2.5 billion to the national economy. When this bituminous coal is utilized for the generation of heat energy, whether for conversion to electricity or for direct use in in- dustrial processing, a number of byproducts considered pollutants are produced. These include smoke, which is unburned carbon; ash, which is the noncombustible portion of the coal; and gaseous oxides of certain foreign elements in the coal, notably sulfur. The coal producers, in cooperation with those who use coal, have a long record of accomplish- ment in the development of means for controlling these pollutants. The emission of smoke from a coal-burning plant is, and should continue to be, a thing of the past. Through intensive research, car- ried out almost 20 years ago, the technology for coal combustion with- out smoke pollution was developed and the modern, coal-burning plant of today emits practically no unburned carbon. A similar situation exists with regard to the uncombustible ash of coal. The development of mechanical and electrostatic collectors has progressed to where the stack emission of "fly ash" in modern plants can be reduced to less than 0.5 percent of the original ash in the coal. Because the development of this ash control equipment is more recent than that of smoke control, not all coal-burning plants are so equipped. But as old plants are phased out of use through obsolescence, and new plants are constructed to replace them, this high-efficiency ash- collection equipment is being installed. The electric utility industry, in particular, should be commended for their efforts in the develop- ment of such equipment and the investment of non-profit-making capital to the extent of millions of dollars per plant to enable this achievement in dust control. And the ultimate in the control of dust has not yet been achieved. Research still continues and the more recent development of bag filters, which remove almost 100 percent of the dust from the gas stream, are currently being tested by a number of large utility companies. The third byproduct which I mentioned earlier, namely, the oxides of sulfur, are the cause of the most concern at the present time. The technology for controlling this so-called pollutant is by no means as advanced as that for control of smoke and fly ash. This is perhaps understandable because it has been apparent for many years that unburned carbon in the form of soot, and unburned other constituents of coal in the form of fly ash, were true pollutants. One could see them, feel them, and readily assess the damage being done. No such means for assessment of the damage of sulfur oxides has been possible. One cannot see them or feel them, and the only way one is aware of their existence is in extreme cases wherein the concentration rises to the point where one can smell them. But this is a rare instance, and the concentrations of sulfur oxides in the air are for the most part so low that we are not aware they exist. Whether their existence is detrimental to health is a matter which has not been resolved. As was pointed out in the report of the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President's Science and Advisory Committee, "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment": PAGENO="0310" 910 ADEQI~AC~ OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT While we all fear, and many believe, that long continued exposure to low levels of poUntion is having unfavorable effects on human health, it is heartening to know that careful studies have so far failed to produce evidence that this is so * * Further along this line the report of the Research Advisory Panel of this Subcommittee on ~cience, Research, and Development, entitled "The Adequacy of Technology for Pollution Abatement," stated: The facts on the physiological responses of man to long-term low-level ex- posure to pollutants are lacking, but are necessary for setting criteria and standards. No evidence has yet been produced that low levels of pollution have unfavorable effects on human health. However, so that I will not be misunderstood and accused of quoting out of context for a special purpose, I want to hasten to add at this point that the same report from which the foregoing quotation was taken went on to say: But abnormal changes in animal populations are considered to be warnings of potential hazard. We, the coal industry, acknowledge that the danger of a potential hazard exists. We believe every effort should be made to define the extent to which such a hazard exists and at the same time to develop means for needed control of the pollution which causes it. We urge that criteria and standards for pollution control be based on factual information and not on emotions. We also urge that until the exact levels of pollution which are dangerous to man have been established, the criteria and standards be set with reason in accordance with the state of the art of the technology for their control. What is being done by industry itself in line with the determina- tion of the tolerable degree of exposure and the development of methods for control of sulfur oxide pollutants? Our organization has been engaged in research directed at the control of this pollutant for over 10 years. In the conduct of most of this research, we have had the financial support and technical guidance of the electric-utility indus- try through the Edison Electric Institute and the Association of Edi- ~on Electric Cos. This research has resulted in greater knowledge of the occurrence of sulfur in coals and the development of guides for removal prior to combustion, as well as increased knowledge of the com- plex chemistry necessary for the development of processes for recov- ery of sulfur oxides from the flue gases after combustion. And, as of January 1. 1966, our program has been expanded, again in coopera- tion with the utility industry. A projected 5-year program has been developed at an estimated cost of $4.3 million. This research, in summary, will include: 1. A thorough study of the physiological effects of sulfur oxides, both alone and in combination with other air contaminants. This work is being carried out by the Hazleton Laboratories of Falls Churth, Va. In addition, our organization, in cooperation with the oil in- dustry and the steel industry, is sponsoring another project at Mellon Institute, also directed at determining the physiological effects of sulfur oxides. While both of these research programs will utilize animals instead of humans to study these effects, it is anticipated that the ~results will provide guidelines for determining the suscepti- bili~y of man to low-level exposure of pollutants. PAGENO="0311" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 911 9. Our organization, in its own laboratories, is carrying out re~ search directed at the development of equipment which will enable the removal of additional quantities of sulfur from bituminous coals before they are burned. In many bituminous coals, the sulfur occurs primarily as a mineral pyrite which, if the coal is crushed fine enough, can theoretically be removed. However, because of theextreme fine- ness of crushing required (to as fine as talcum powder) in order to free these pyrite particles, the development of the necessary tech- nology and equipment is progressing slowly. But, progressing it is, and we expect some time late this year to have installed at a central Pennsylvania powerplant the first pilot unit for achieving this reduc- tion in sulfur content of coal. 3. We are also carrying out accelerated research on the development of low-cost methods for recovering SO2 from flue gases following combustion. Our present research is directed at the injection of chemicals into the flue gas stream, which will react with the oxides of sulfur and deposit them with the fly ash. Again, the development of the necessary knowledge of reaction rate of various chemicals, the most effective temperatures at which the reactions should be carried out~ and other design data cannot be achieved immediately. It is our intention that the basic laboratory work will be completed some time early next year, and trial installations on a full scale can be started shortly thereafter. In addition to the research which we are doing, a number of others, including both Government and private industry, are carrying out extensive investigations. Both the Bureau of Mines and the Public Health Service are investigating processes for sulfur oxide recovery. The Bureau of Mines work will move into the early pilot stages this year, and hopefully, a full-scale installation can be made sometime the latter part of next year. The Public Health Service work, we understand, includes an evaluation and possible erection in this coun- try of a pilot unit incorporating a process which has been developed in Germany. Investigations by the manufacturers of equipment includes the in- stallation of wet gas scrubbing processes. One of these has already been installed for test at a powerplant, and another is projected for installation late this year. And, in this overall effort directed at finding a means for economi- cal control of sulfur oxide pollutants, one of the large chemical com- panies, a primary supplier of sulfuric acid to industry, in cooperation with a utility company, is constructing on a substantial scale the equipment necessary for recovering the sulfur oxides from flue gases in the form of sulfuric acid which that company then will market. In summary, the state of the art of control of pollutants from the combustion of coal is moving forward on all fronts. As I pointed out earlier, the technology for control of smoke in fly ash is already available in an advanced state, and additional progress is being made. However, much still remains to be done, despite an expanded research effort by industry, in connection with the control of sulfur oxides. Those processes which are most advanced in technical feasibility are still at the present state of development far too expensive to install and operate, especially in light of the lack of knowledge regarding the degree of control which is necessary to protect human health. PAGENO="0312" 912 ADEQUACY o1~ T1~CHNOLOG~ FOE POLtUTION ABATEMENT But progress ~ being and will continue to be made, and as the work which I described earlier, passes through the large pilot stage of de- velopment, opportunities will be available for improvements in the technology which will make them economically as well as technically feasible. The mining and preparation of coal for shipment to market also is the cause of pollution, including air, water, and land disturbance. Air pollution results from the spontaneous ignition and subsequent combustion of the refuse discarded in the cleaning of coal for market. Since this refuse amounts to approximately 1 ton for every 2 tons of coal produced, the amount of this material which has accumulated since coal mining began in this country is substantial. The technology for prevention of spontaneous combustion in new refuse piles has been de- veloped, and by means of careful compaction and selection of site, this source of air pollution can be eliminated in the future. However, a great deal more work is required in the development of means for extinguishing fires and prevention of reignition in old and abandoned refuse piles. Our organization has investigated a number of ap- proaches2 including the pumping of noncombustible material into the refuse pile. Other organizations, such as the Bureau of Mines as well as other industrial groups, are carrying out additional research, and while some progress has been made the complete answer is not yet available. Water pollution results from two sources; namely, the fine coal particles suspended in the water used for coal washing, whichis in turn discarded to streams; and the acid drainage from mining areas which ultimately by natural flow finds its way into the streams. The tech- nology for control of "black water" discharge is well advanced, and by the use of settling ponds and filters the modern coal preparation plant is rapidly making black rivers a thing of the past. Acid drainage, however, represents a far greater problem insofar as control is concerned. The mechanism for production of acid water in a coal mine is not completely understood, and the means for changing the acid drainage from a coal mine into so-called sweet water is not as simple as many would have us believe. A large coal mine may dis- charge as much as 10 million gallons of water each day. The equip- ment and chemicals necessary for rendering this water suitable as de- fined by some State laws for discharge into natural streams can be extremely complex and costly. But progress is being made. The principal object of the coal industry's attention to the solution of acid drainage problem~ has been in the field of eliminating those areas of drainage in operating mines. The responsible coal producers are surveying the sources of ground water which pass through their mining operations in an effort to minimize the amount which becomes acid; sampling and analyzing the waters discharged from their mines so that they can determine the degree of acidity, and the mineral content as a basis for determining the best approach for neutralization and removal of these minerals; and planning their new operations in such a manner as to reduce to the minimum the water pollution potential. Again, as in the case of ai~ pollution control, a great deal more must be learned about the pollutant itself, both its formation and its effects, before criteria and standards for water quality can be established. }]!undreds of thousamis of dollars are being speiit by the coal industry PAGENO="0313" AD1~QUACY OF ~I?ECH~OLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATE~LENT 91~ ~nd associated groups in an effort to find a practical, economical, and effective method of removing the acid coutaminants from the mine drainage waters. A number of theories are being reviewed. The most popular approach to the problem has been the neutralization approach. This, however, has its shortcomings in that with the volume of mine water to be treated in a large openition, the cost could be highly un- realistic. In 1963 the Pennsylvania Coal Research Board began intensive re- search into various problems confronting the coal industry, with main emphasis placed on pollution control. And just a few months ago the Northern West Virginia Coal Asso- ciation announced that it would spend $150,000 for a study of that State's No. 1 water conservation problem-mine acid drainage. This 2-year study will be conducted by the West Virginia University School of Mines with two primary and immediate research objectives: (1) To discover the sources of pollution and determine cor- rective measures by which its volume may be reduced; and (2) To obtain factual engineering and economic data on chem- ical treatment of mine drainage by actual operation of a field pilot plant. In the final session of this subcommittee's public hearings, Dr. Abel Wôlman, a recognized authority in the field of ecology atid pollution control, testified that 35 years ago he had been a member of one of the earlier research teams investigating the discharge of acid waters from mines in the Appalachian area. The project spent $20 million and in Dr. Wolman's words: "We did not succeed and the Bureau of Mines Director pointed out that they have no solution to acid mine wastes." This lends credence to the contention of the coal industry that a great deal more research and study is necessary if the problem of acid mine waste is to be solved. Dr. Wolman agreed that this was a field "where deep seated and prompt research is absolutely essential." Much research has been done here by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and by private research organizations, as well as by those institutions supported by the various States, Perhaps there has been too much independent action by the researchers. As one means of eliminating this situation, Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., is cooperating with the Coal Industry Advisory Committee to the Ohio River Valh~y Water Sanitations Commission in developing a program, to be financed by funds from CIAC with BCR contributions, to set up a coordinating agency whereby all of the various research projects that are now being conducted in the area of mine drainage can be brought together and summarized and evaluated. By this means, the various independent research sponsors can recognize any areas of duplication or conflict and avoid any waste in the funds much needed for the ultimate solving of the problem. On this subject, we would urge that the subcommittee look into the possibility of a recommendation that at least a sizable part of Federal funds that are appropriated to meet the needs of re- search and pilot plant tests be made available to some of the inde- pendent groups that are doing such a dedicated job in this effort to find a way out of the disconcerting maze that presently surrounds every perimeter of the mine drainage continent. Reclamation of disturbed lands is another area in which the broad concept of environmental conservation is involved. Surface mining PAGENO="0314" 914 ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABAPEMEWT for minerals and fuels is a mining process in which the surface of the land is removed to permit the taking of the natural `resource product. This process, because of its lower cost operation and the recovery of' greater quantities of minerals, ~provides an economical base for the marketing of the product whether it be coal or other material. In many cases, surface mining, or strip mining as it is also known, pro- vides the only way in which large deposits of valuable materials can be obtained. In the operation of this process, there is necessarily a dtsturbance of the land surface. The coal industry has been often ac- cused of being a poor neighbor for not r~habilitating this disturbed surface. For almost ~0'ye~rs, however, the industry has been pursuing a voluntary program of reclamation of mined lands. Early in 1900, a request for tree seedlings was made to the Ohio Department of Forestry by a strip mine operator, but it was not until 1918 that we have any `substantive evidence of this program. Then an Indiana Operator planted `an area in fruit trees, some of which are continuing to bear today. In 1920, in Illinois, the use of mined lands for tin~ber production was instituted. In 1928, the Indiana strip operators orga- nized into a group which, for the first time sponsored a program of statewide planting of lands. This effort has continued and has been so successful that today practically every responsible operator in the 22 States where surface mining is conducted is engaged in a program of land reclamation. Many of these lands are converted into recreational areas, homesites, shopping centers, and agricultural and grazing lands, in addition to the many acres which are devoted to timber protection and wildlife and bird propagation and protection. One of the major contributions which the industry's reclamation effort; is making is providing water impoundments, ponds, and lakes which contribute to the source of waters for `all purposes of the community. As evidence of the industry's sincerity in the land reclamation effort, in 1962 the responsible members of the industry joined together into a voluntary organization for the purpose of encouraging, promoting, and developing the program of reclamation of mined lands. `This organization-the Mined Land Conservation Conference-(an affiliate of the National Coal Association) has done much to improve the land reclamation program and provide new knowledge and practices to aid in more effective and economical methods of reclaiming mined lands. A major assist in this field is given by the MLCC Technical Commit- tee made up of experts in all of the scientific and technical fields that are in any way connected with the adaptation of mined land's for pur- poses of community and economical uses. This committee serves not only the individual and group members of the MLCC but is also avail- able without cost to all types of governmental agencies, including this committee, for such advisory or consulting services `as may be `helpful. In its effort to further the cause of land reclamation and utilization, the conference has instituted a voluntary industry program of surface mine conservation. The principal tenets of this code include the fol- lowing: Dispose of all refuse in a manner that will prevent stream poi- lution. ` Prevent acid drainage both during and after the mining opera- tion. PAGENO="0315" ADEQUACY OF TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT 915 Where final-cut lakes are not created, cover all toxic materials in the final-cut pit. Place pit cleaning and other highly toxic materials where they may be easily covered with clear overburden. These practices are followed by the majority of the strip mine oper- ators in their day-to-day operations. In closing this statement, I would like to call the attention of the committee to what we consider to be a most important reference in the report of the Research Management Advisory Panel. This was the discussion of the need for industrial research laboratories to partici- pate to a greater extent in the development of pollution control meth- ods, and the role of the Federal Government in encouraging this par- ticipation. And here I quote directly from the report: The Federal Government routinely purchases research and development results from industry, more or less as a product. The data are used in the performance of agency missions as a basis for regulation and control administration, and for dissemination to local and state governments. In the pollution field, however, Federal research funds, for the most part, are spent intramurally or in non-profit universities and institutes. For example, it is estimated that only about one million dollars out of sixteen million dollars for fiscal year 1967 air pollution research is spent in industrial laboratories. The Federal roles in waste management technology seem to be, first, stimulus to industry to speed development, and second, the establishment of the yard- stick to gage whether the state of art is ready for regulation and control meas- ures. The direct contracting with industry for research and development on broadly applicable devices and techniques is a desirable part of the overall Federal effort in pollution. The ultimate test of any process developed for the control of pol- lutants will be a full-scale installation at an operating plant, mine, etc., where the pollutant is being produced. Such installations will involve the expenditures of many millions of dollars-a large capital invest- ment in a nonprofit operation. This will necessarily defer capital in- vestment in other areas, which would ultimately lead to the expansion of our industrial economy. We urge that the committee give careful attention to the full report of the Research Management Advisory Panel, but also give special attention to those portions which recom- mend Federal Government financial assistance to industry in the de- velopment and application of pollution control methods. (A 28-page detailed statement was received from the Advanced Products Division, VACCO Industries, South El Monte, Calif. This statement, copy of which is in the committee file, deals with the design, development, and test of a device to maximize combustion efficiency in internal combustion automotive engines.) C PAGENO="0316"